Exploring existing malaria services and the feasibility of implementing community engagement approaches amongst conflict-affected communities in Cameroon: a qualitative study.

BACKGROUND: Cameroon is one of the countries with the highest burden of malaria. Since 2018, there has been an ongoing conflict in the country, which has reduced access to healthcare for populations in affected regions, and little is known about the impact on access to malaria services. The objective of this study was to understand the current situation regarding access to malaria services in Cameroon to inform the design of interventions to remove barriers and encourage the use of available services. METHODS: A qualitative research study was carried out to understand the barriers preventing communities accessing care, the uptake of community health worker (CHW) services, and to gather perceptions on community engagement approaches, to assess whether these could be an appropriate mechanism to encourage uptake of community health worker (CHW) services. Twenty-nine focus group discussions and 11 in-depth interviews were carried out between May and July 2021 in two regions of Cameroon, Southwest and Littoral. Focus group discussions were held with CHWs and community members and semi-structured, in-depth interviews were conducted with key stakeholders including regional government staff, council staff, community leaders and community-based organisations. The data were analysed thematically; open, descriptive coding was combined with exploration of pre-determined investigative areas. RESULTS: The study confirmed that access to healthcare has become increasingly challenging in conflict-affected areas. Although the Ministry of Health are providing CHWs to improve access, several barriers remain that limit uptake of these services including awareness, availability, cost, trust in competency, and supply of testing and treatment. This study found that communities were supportive of community engagement approaches, particularly the community dialogue approach. CONCLUSION: Communities in conflict-affected regions of Cameroon continue to have limited access to healthcare services, in part due to poor use of CHW services provided. Community engagement approaches can be an effective way to improve the awareness and use of CHWs. However, these approaches alone will not be sufficient to resolve all the challenges faced by conflict-affected communities when accessing health and malaria services. Additional interventions are needed to increase the availability of CHWs, improve the supply of diagnostic tests and treatments and to reduce the cost of treatment for all.

A formative cross-sectional study to assess caregiver's health-seeking behaviour and knowledge surrounding malaria, and understand the burden of malaria among children under-five in conflict-affected communities of Cameroon.

BACKGROUND: Malaria remains a major global health problem often worsened by political instability and armed conflict. The purpose of the study was to explore community knowledge, attitudes and practices on malaria prevention, and to understand the burden of malaria and health-seeking behaviours of caregivers of children under-five in conflict-affected communities of the South West and Littoral Regions of Cameroon. METHODS: A cross-sectional survey involving internally displaced persons (IDPS), host population, and their children under-five was conducted across 80 communities. The survey was conducted from May to June 2021. Participants were interviewed using a structured questionnaire. Malaria prevalence for children under-five was determined using rapid diagnostic tests (RDT) on blood samples. Association between variables and displacement status was measured using chi square test and multivariate logistic regression model was fitted to identify factors associated with adequate knowledge on malaria prevention. RESULTS: A total of 2386 adults participated in the study and 1543 RDTs were conducted for children under-five. Adequate levels of knowledge and attitudes on malaria prevention was recorded among 1258 (52.9%) of the participants, with very strong evidence to suggest the level to be higher among the host (59.5%) compared to the IDPs (49.5%) and returnees (39.7%) (p < 0.001). Good practices towards malaria prevention was 43.3%, with very strong evidence indicating lower levels among IDPs (42.8%) and returnees (28.5%) compared to the host (49.4%) (p < 0.001). Malaria prevalence for children under-five was 54.0% and adequate health-seeking for suspected episodes of malaria was 53.0%, without any difference among IDPs (51.78%) and returnees (48.7%) compared to host populations (55.4%) (p = 0.154). Multivariate logistic regression model showed that there was quite strong evidence to suggest primary and secondary levels of education have higher odds of having correct knowledge of malaria prevention (adjusted odds ratio (AOR) 1.71, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.11-2.64, p = 0.015 and AOR 1.80, 95% CI 1.15-2.82, p = 0.010 respectively). There was very strong evidence to suggest that owning a radio or a television was associated with greater odds of having a higher knowledge on malaria prevention (AOR 1.49, 95% CI 1.233-1.81, p = 0.000 and AOR 1.47, 95% CI 1.18-1.84, p = 0.001). CONCLUSION: Over half of the population have correct knowledge and attitudes towards malaria prevention but gaps in complete knowledge remained. Some of the caregivers know the correct malaria preventive practices coupled with largely unsatisfactory treatment approaches and reflected by the high prevalence of malaria among their children. In order to effectively treat malaria, innovative strategies should target community participation.

Making the most of malaria chemoprevention.

Against a backdrop of stalled progress in malaria control, it is surprising that the various forms of malaria chemoprevention are not more widely used. The World Health Organization (WHO) has recommended several malaria chemoprevention strategies, some of them for over a decade, and each with documented efficacy and cost effectiveness. In 2022, the WHO updated and augmented its malaria chemoprevention guidelines to facilitate their wider use. This paper considers new insights into the empirical evidence that supports the broader application of chemoprevention and encourages its application as a default strategy for young children living in moderate to high transmission settings given their high risk of severe disease and death. Chemoprevention is an effective medium-term strategy with potential benefits far outweighing costs. There is a strong argument for urgently increasing malaria chemoprevention in endemic countries.

Control, elimination, and eradication efforts for neglected tropical diseases in the World Health Organization African region over the last 30 years: A scoping review.

OBJECTIVES: NTDs historically receive less attention than other diseases in the same regions. Recent gap analyses revealed notable shortcomings despite NTD elimination progress. This systematic scoping review was conducted to understand NTD control, elimination, and eradication efforts in the WHO African region over the last 30 years. METHODS: Peer-reviewed publications from PubMed, Web of Science, and Cochrane databases related to NTD control, elimination, and eradication in the WHO African Region from 1990 to 2022 were reviewed. Included articles were categorized based on NTD; study location, type, and period; and topic areas. Technical and guidance documents from WHO, UN, partner, and academic/research institutions were reviewed. Country-specific multi-year NTD master plans were documented. RESULTS: Four hundred eighty peer-reviewed articles, six Cochrane reviews, and 134 technical reports were included. MDA and non-interventional/survey-related studies were common topics. Lymphatic filariasis, trachoma, schistosomiasis, and onchocerciasis were the most frequently studied NTDs. Tanzania, Ethiopia, and Nigeria were the most represented countries; multi-country studies were limited. CONCLUSION: The review highlights progress made in NTD control, elimination, and eradication efforts in the WHO African Region and can inform national/regional strategies. Disease and geographical disparities were evident, warranting focus and research in certain countries. A standardized approach to NTD control programs is needed for sustained progress. FUNDING: There was no funding source for this study.

Use of Supervision Data to Improve Quality of Care for Malaria in Pregnancy: Experience in Six African Countries.

Malaria in pregnancy (MiP) intervention coverage, especially intermittent preventive treatment in pregnancy (IPTp), lags behind other global malaria indicators. In 2020, across Africa, only 32% of eligible pregnant women received at least three IPTp doses, despite high antenatal care attendance. We conducted a secondary analysis of data collected during Outreach Training and Supportive Supervision visits from 2019 to 2020 to assess quality of care and explore factors contributing to providers' competence in providing IPTp, insecticide-treated nets, malaria case management, and respectful maternity care. Data were collected during observations of provider-patient interactions in six countries (Cameroon, Cote d'Ivoire, Ghana, Kenya, Mali, and Niger). Competency scores (i.e., composite scores of supervisory checklist observations) were calculated across three domains: MiP prevention, MiP treatment, and respectful maternity care. Scores are used to understand drivers of competency, rather than to assess individual health worker performance. Country-specific multilinear regressions were used to assess how competency score was influenced by commodity availability, training, provider gender and cadre, job aid availability, and facility type. Average competency scores varied across countries: prevention (44-90%), treatment (78-90%), and respectful maternity care (53-93%). The relative association of each factor with competency score varied. Commodity availability, training, and access to job aids correlated positively with competency in multiple countries. To improve MiP service quality, equitable access to training opportunities for different cadres, targeted training, and access to job aids and guidelines should be available for providers. Collection and analysis of routine supervision data can support tailored actions to improve quality MiP services.

High efficacy of chlorfenapyr-based net Interceptor® G2 against pyrethroid-resistant malaria vectors from Cameroon.

BACKGROUND: The increasing reports of resistance to pyrethroid insecticides associated with reduced efficacy of pyrethroid-only interventions highlight the urgency of introducing new non-pyrethroid-only control tools. Here, we investigated the performance of piperonyl-butoxide (PBO)-pyrethroid [Permanet 3.0 (P3.0)] and dual active ingredients (AI) nets [Interceptor G2 (IG2): containing pyrethroids and chlorfenapyr and Royal Guard (RG): containing pyrethroids and pyriproxyfen] compared to pyrethroid-only net Royal Sentry (RS) against pyrethroid-resistant malaria vectors in Cameroon. METHODS: The efficacy of these tools was firstly evaluated on Anopheles gambiae s.l. and Anopheles funestus s.l. from Gounougou, Mibellon, Mangoum, Nkolondom, and Elende using cone/tunnel assays. In addition, experimental hut trials (EHT) were performed to evaluate the performance of unwashed and 20 times washed nets in semi-field conditions. Furthermore, pyrethroid-resistant markers were genotyped in dead vs alive, blood-fed vs unfed mosquitoes after exposure to the nets to evaluate the impact of these markers on net performance. The XLSTAT software was used to calculate the various entomological outcomes and the Chi-square test was used to compare the efficacy of various nets. The odds ratio and Fisher exact test were then used to establish the statistical significance of any association between insecticide resistance markers and bed net efficacy. RESULTS: Interceptor G2 was the most effective net against wild pyrethroid-resistant An. funestus followed by Permanet 3.0. In EHT, this net induced up to 87.8% mortality [95% confidence interval (CI): 83.5-92.1%) and 55.6% (95% CI: 48.5-62.7%) after 20 washes whilst unwashed pyrethroid-only net (Royal Sentry) killed just 18.2% (95% CI: 13.4-22.9%) of host-seeking An. funestus. The unwashed Permanet 3.0 killed up to 53.8% (95% CI: 44.3-63.4%) of field-resistant mosquitoes and 47.2% (95% CI: 37.7-56.7%) when washed 20 times, and the Royal Guard 13.2% (95% CI: 9.0-17.3%) for unwashed net and 8.5% (95% CI: 5.7-11.4%) for the 20 washed net. Interceptor G2, Permanet 3.0, and Royal Guard provided better personal protection (blood-feeding inhibition 66.2%, 77.8%, and 92.8%, respectively) compared to pyrethroid-only net Royal Sentry (8.4%). Interestingly, a negative association was found between kdrw and the chlorfenapyr-based net Interceptor G2 (χ2 = 138; P < 0.0001) with homozygote-resistant mosquitoes predominantly found in the dead ones. CONCLUSIONS: The high mortality recorded with Interceptor G2 against pyrethroid-resistant malaria vectors in this study provides first semi-field evidence of high efficacy against these major malaria vectors in Cameroon encouraging the implementation of this novel net for malaria control in the country. However, the performance of this net should be established in other locations and on other major malaria vectors before implementation at a large scale.

High vector diversity and malaria transmission dynamics in five sentinel sites in Cameroon.

BACKGROUND: Malaria remains one of the main causes of morbidity and mortality in Cameroon. To inform vector control intervention decision making, malaria vector surveillance was conducted monthly from October 2018 to September 2020 in five selected sentinel sites (Gounougou and Simatou in the North, and Bonabéri, Mangoum and Nyabessang in the South). METHODS: Human landing catches (HLCs), U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) light traps, and pyrethrum spray catches (PSCs) were used to assess vector density, species composition, human biting rate (HBR), endophagic index, indoor resting density (IRD), parity, sporozoite infection rates, entomological inoculation rate (EIR), and Anopheles vectorial capacity. RESULTS: A total of 139,322 Anopheles mosquitoes from 18 species (or 21 including identified sub-species) were collected across all sites. Out of the 18 species, 12 were malaria vectors including Anopheles gambiae sensu lato (s.l.), Anopheles funestus s.l.., Anopheles nili, Anopheles moucheti, Anopheles paludis, Anopheles demeilloni, Anopheles. pharoensis, Anopheles ziemanni, Anopheles multicinctus, Anopheles tenebrosus, Anopheles rufipes, and Anopheles marshallii. Anopheles gambiae s.l. remains the major malaria vector (71% of the total Anopheles) collected, though An. moucheti and An. paludis had the highest sporozoite rates in Nyabessang. The mean indoor HBR of Anopheles ranged from 11.0 bites/human/night (b/h/n) in Bonabéri to 104.0 b/h/n in Simatou, while outdoors, it varied from 24.2 b/h/n in Mangoum to 98.7 b/h/n in Simatou. Anopheles gambiae s.l. and An. moucheti were actively biting until at least 8:00 a.m. The mean Anopheles IRD was 17.1 females/room, and the parity rate was 68.9%. The mean EIRs for each site were 55.4 infective bites/human/month (ib/h/m) in Gounougou, 99.0 ib/h/m in Simatou, 51.2 ib/h/m in Mangoum, 24.4 ib/h/m in Nyabessang, and 18.1 ib/h/m in Bonabéri. Anopheles gambiae s.l. was confirmed as the main malaria vector with the highest vectorial capacity in all sites based on sporozoite rate, except in Nyabessang. CONCLUSION: These findings highlight the high malaria transmission occurring in Cameroon and will support the National Malaria Control Program to design evidence-based malaria vector control strategies, and deployment of effective and integrated vector control interventions to reduce malaria transmission and burden in Cameroon, where several Anopheles species could potentially maintain year-round transmission.

Ideational factors associated with consistent use of insecticide-treated nets: a multi-country, multilevel analysis.

BACKGROUND: Malaria remains a major cause of morbidity and mortality in sub-Saharan Africa. Using insecticide-treated nets (ITNs) every night, year-round is critical to maximize protection against malaria. This study describes sociodemographic, psychosocial, and household factors associated with consistent ITN use in Cameroon, Côte d'Ivoire and Sierra Leone. METHODS: Cross-sectional household surveys employed similar sampling procedures, data collection tools, and methods in three countries. The survey sample was nationally representative in Côte d'Ivoire, representative of the North and Far North regions in Cameroon, and representative of Bo and Port Loko districts in Sierra Leone. Analysis used multilevel logistic regression and sociodemographic, ideational, and household independent variables among households with at least one ITN to identify correlates of consistent ITN use, defined as sleeping under an ITN every night the preceding week. FINDINGS: Consistent ITN use in Côte d'Ivoire was 65.4%, 72.6% in Cameroon, and 77.1% in Sierra Leone. While several sociodemographic and ideational variables were correlated with consistent ITN use, these varied across countries. Multilevel logistic regression results showed perceived self-efficacy to use ITNs and positive attitudes towards ITN use were variables associated with consistent use in all three countries. The perception of ITN use as a community norm was positively linked with consistent use in Cameroon and Côte d'Ivoire but was not significant in Sierra Leone. Perceived vulnerability to malaria was positively linked with consistent use in Cameroon and Sierra Leone but negatively correlated with the outcome in Côte d'Ivoire. Household net sufficiency was strongly and positively associated with consistent use in all three countries. Finally, the findings revealed strong clustering at the household and enumeration area (EA) levels, suggesting similarities in net use among respondents of the same EA and in the same household. CONCLUSIONS: There are similarities and differences in the variables associated with consistent ITN use across the three countries and several ideational variables are significant. The findings suggest that a social and behaviour change strategy based on the ideation model is relevant for increasing consistent ITN use and can inform specific strategies for each context. Finally, ensuring household net sufficiency is essential.

Allelic frequencies of mutants of the Plasmodium falciparum, quinoline and folate metabolizing genes in the west region of Cameroon.

The emergence and spread of Plasmodium falciparum (P.f) drug resistance is still a major concern in Sub-Saharan Africa and warrants that its evolution be monitored continuously. The present study aimed at determining the distribution of key P.f drug resistance-mediating alleles in circulating malaria parasites in the West region of Cameroon. A cross sectional hospital-based study was conducted in Dschang and Ngounso in the West region of Cameroon. The Pfcrt, Pfmdr1, and the Pfdhps genes were amplified through nested PCR in 208 malaria-infected samples of the 301 febrile outpatients enrolled. The presence or absence of mutations in the K76T, N86Y, A437G and A581G codons of these P.f. genes respectively were determined through restriction digestion analysis. The proportion of different alleles were estimated as percentages and compared between two study sites using the Chi square test. A p value <0.05 was considered significant. A high prevalence (75.6%) of the 437G allele was observed. It was significantly different between Dschang and Ngounso (62% vs. 89.2%, X2 = 19.6, P = 0.00005). Equally observed was a 19.2% (95%CI: 13.3-25.6) of the dhps-581G mutant allele. Furthermore, we observed the Pfcrt-76T, Pfmdr1-N86 mutations in 73.0% (67.5-79.7) and 87.2% (83.2-91.9), and 3.0% (0.0-9.6) and 12.8% was observed for the Pfcrt-K76T and Pfmdr1-N86Y respectively. When biallelic haplotypes were constructed from alleles of the three genes, same pattern was seen. Overall, 73% and 87% of circulating P. falciparum isolates carried wild type alleles at Pfmdr1-N86Y and Pfcrt-K76T. On the other hand, we found more parasites with mutant alleles at dhps (437G and 581G) loci which may reflect possible drug-related selection of this mutant in the parasite population. Continuous monitoring of these mutations is recommended to pre-empt a loss in sulphadoxine-pyrimethamine efficacy in malaria chemoprevention programs.

Diagnosis of malaria in pregnancy: accuracy of CareStart™ malaria Pf/PAN against light microscopy among symptomatic pregnant women at the Central Hospital in Yaoundé, Cameroon.

BACKGROUND: The need to start treatment early for pregnant women who present with clinical features of malaria usually conflicts with the need to confirm diagnosis by microscopy (MP) before treatment, due to delays in obtaining results. Parasite sequestration in the placenta is also a problem. Rapid diagnostic tests (RDT), which detect soluble antigens, are a valuable alternative. The objective of this study was to evaluate pretreatment parasite prevalence by microscopy and by RDT and to assess the accuracy of RDT with MP as reference. METHODS: A prospective cross-sectional study was carried out at the obstetrical unit of the Central Hospital in Yaoundé, during the period January-August 2015. Consenting patients with symptoms of suspected malaria in pregnancy were recruited and a blood sample taken for MP and RDT before treatment was started. The estimates of diagnostic performance (with 95% confidence interval) were calculated in OpenEpi online software using the Wilson's score. The agreement, as reflected by the Cohen's kappa, was calculated and interpreted using known intervals. RESULTS: The results showed that, out of the 104 patients recruited, 69.2% (95%CI: 59.1-77.5) were MP positive while 77.94% (95%CI: 63.1-80.9) were RDT positive. The sensitivity of the malaria RDT was 91.67% (95%CI: 83.69-96.77) while the specificity was 53.13% (95%CI: 31.39-65.57). The diagnostic accuracy of the RDT with MP as reference was 79.81% (95%CI: 70.0-86.1). All cases were due to Plasmodium falciparum. A Cohen's kappa of 0.45 (95%CI: 0.26-0.64) was obtained, consistent with a moderate agreement between the tests. CONCLUSIONS: The diagnostic accuracy of the CareStart™ malaria Pf/PAN compared to microscopy was high, but not as desirable, with a false negative RDT at very high parasitaemia. In tertiary facilities, RDTs appear to provide a better diagnostic solution compared to microscopy. However, future studies with larger sample sizes should make this observation more generalizable; as missing a case could have serious consequences on pregnancy outcome.

Ideational factors associated with net care behaviour: a multi-country analysis.

BACKGROUND: Malaria is endemic to sub-Saharan African countries. Mass and routine distribution, promotion, and use of ITNs are critical components of malaria prevention programmes. Correct and consistent use of insecticide-treated mosquito nets (ITN) is an effective strategy for malaria prevention. To extend bed-net lifespan, the World Health Organization recommends folding or tying up ITNs when they are not in use. This study analyses factors associated with net care practices in three African countries. METHODS: Researchers collected household data nationwide in Côte d'Ivoire, from the North and Far North regions of Cameroon, and from Port Loko and Bo districts in Sierra Leone, between 2018 and 2019. The dependent variable was respondents reporting that they fold or tie up their nets. The study adjusted for selected sociodemographic, ideational (psychosocial), and household variables using multilevel models. The analysis was limited to women of reproductive age and their male spouses/partners from households with at least one ITN: 2,940 respondents in Cameroon, 6,105 in Côte d'Ivoire, and 2,730 in Sierra Leone. RESULTS: Among respondents, 50.2% in Cameroon, 52.0% in Côte d'Ivoire and 75.6% in Sierra Leone reported folding or tying up their net when it was not in use. In all three countries, the data showed significant clustering at both household and community levels, indicating the influence of factors operating at these levels on net-care behaviour. The odds of reporting the behaviour varied significantly by geographic unit in each country. Consistent use of nets was strongly correlated with net-care behaviour. Furthermore, five ideational variables were positively associated with the outcome behaviour in all three countries: positive attitude towards net care, perceived susceptibility for malaria, response-efficacy of ITNs, perceived self-efficacy for net use, and the perception that net use was a community norm. Additional significant ideational variables included positive attitudes towards net use (Cameroon and Côte d'Ivoire), perceived severity of malaria (Côte d'Ivoire), and interpersonal communication about malaria (Côte d'Ivoire). CONCLUSIONS: The study identified ideational variables associated with recommended net-care practice. Programme efforts designed to promote net-care practices and extend average lifespan of ITNs may be more effective if they emphasize positive attitudes towards net care, perceived susceptibility of malaria infection, response-efficacy of ITNs, perceived self-efficacy for net use, and promote net-care behaviour as a positive community norm.

The use of video job-aids to improve the quality of seasonal malaria chemoprevention delivery.

Mobile phones are increasingly used in community health programmes, but the use of video job-aids that can be displayed on smart phones has not been widely exploited. We investigated the use of video job-aids to support the delivery of seasonal malaria chemoprevention (SMC) in countries in West and Central Africa. The study was prompted by the need for training tools that could be used in a socially distanced manner during the COVID-19 pandemic. Animated videos were developed in English, French, Portuguese, Fula and Hausa, illustrating key steps for administering SMC safely, including wearing masks, washing hands, and social distancing. Through a consultative process with the national malaria programmes of countries using SMC, successive versions of the script and videos were reviewed to ensure accurate and relevant content. Online workshops were held with programme managers to plan how to use the videos in SMC staff training and supervision, and the use of the videos was evaluated in Guinea through focus groups and in-depth interviews with drug distributors and other staff involved in SMC delivery and through direct observations of SMC administration. Programme managers found the videos useful as they reinforce messages, can be viewed at any time and repeatedly, and when used during training sessions, provide a focus of discussion and support for trainers and help retain messages. Managers requested that local specificities of SMC delivery in their setting be included in tailored versions of the video for their country, and videos were required to be narrated in a variety of local languages. In Guinea, SMC drug distributors found the video covered the all the essential steps and found the video easy to understand. However, not all key messages were followed as some of the safety measures, social distancing and wearing masks, were perceived by some as creating mistrust amongst communities. Video job-aids can potentially provide an efficient means of reaching large numbers of drug distributors with guidance for safe and effective distribution of SMC. Not all distributors use android phones, but SMC programmes are increasingly providing drug distributors with android devices to track delivery, and personal ownership of smartphones in sub-Saharan Africa is growing. The use of video job-aids for community health workers to improve the quality delivery of SMC, or of other primary health care interventions, should be more widely evaluated.

Diagnostic Accuracy of CareStart™ Malaria HRP2 and SD Bioline Pf/PAN for Malaria in Febrile Outpatients in Varying Malaria Transmission Settings in Cameroon.

BACKGROUND: There was an increase in the number of malaria cases in Cameroon in 2018 that could reflect changes in provider practice, despite effective interventions. In this study, we assessed the diagnostic performance of two malaria rapid diagnostic tests (mRDTs) for diagnostic confirmation of suspected cases of malaria in public and private health facilities in two malaria transmission settings in Cameroon. METHODS: We evaluated the diagnostic performance of CareStart pf and SD Bioline Pf/PAN mRDT and compared these parameters by RDT type and transmission setting. Nested PCR and blood film microscopy were used as references. The chi square test was used for independent sample comparisons, while the McNemar's test was used to test for the dependence of categorical data in paired sample testing. A p < 0.05 was considered significant in all comparisons. The R (v.4.0.2) software was used for analyses. RESULTS: A total of 1126 participants consented for the study in the four sites. The diagnostic accuracy of the CareStart Pf mRDT was 0.93.6% (0.911-0.961) in Yaoundé, 0.930% (0.90-0.960) in Ngounso, 0.84% (0.794-0.891) in St Vincent Catholic Hospital Dschang and 0.407 (0.345-0.468) in Dschang district hospital. For SD Bioline Pf/PAN the accuracy was 0.759 (0.738-0.846) for St Vincent Catholic Hospital Dschang and 0.426 (0.372-0.496) for the Dschang district hospital. The accuracy was slightly lower in each case but not statistically different when PCR was considered as the reference. The likelihood ratios of the positive and negative tests were high in the high transmission settings of Yaoundé (10.99 (6.24-19.35)) and Ngounso (14.40 (7.89-26.28)) compared to the low transmission settings of Dschang (0.71 (0.37-1.37)) and St Vincent Catholic hospital (7.37 (4.32-12.59)). There was a high degree of agreement between the tests in Yaoundé (Cohen's Kappa: 0.85 ± 0.05 (0.7-0.95)) and Ngounso (Cohen's Kappa: 0.86 ± 0.05 (0.74, 0.97)) and moderate agreement in St Vincent hospital Dschang (k: 0.58 ± 0.06 (0.44-0.71)) and poor agreement in the District Hospital Dschang (Cohen's Kappa: -0.11 ± 0.05 (-0.21-0.01)). The diagnostic indicators of the SD Bioline Pf/PAN were slightly better than for CareStart Pf mRDT in St Vincent Catholic hospital Dschang, irrespective of the reference test. CONCLUSIONS: Publicly procured malaria rapid diagnostic tests in Cameroon have maintained high accuracy (91-94%) in the clinical diagnosis of malaria in high malaria transmission regions of Cameroon, although they failed to reach WHO standards. We observed an exception in the low transmission region of Dschang, West region, where the accuracy tended to be lower and variable between facilities located in this town. These results underscore the importance of the routine monitoring of the quality and performance of malaria RDTs in diverse settings in malaria endemic areas.

Fine scale analysis of malaria incidence in under-5: hierarchical Bayesian spatio-temporal modelling of routinely collected malaria data between 2012-2018 in Cameroon.

The current study aims to provide a fine-scale spatiotemporal estimate of malaria incidence among Cameroonian under-5, and to determine its associated environmental factors, to set up preventive interventions that are adapted to each health district of Cameroon. Routine data on symptomatic malaria in children under-5 collected in health facilities, between 2012 and 2018 were used. The trend of malaria cases was assessed by the Mann-Kendall (M-K) test. A time series decomposition was applied to malaria incidence to extract the seasonal component. Malaria risk was estimated by the standardised incidence ratio (SIR) and smoothed by a hierarchical Bayesian spatiotemporal model. In total, 4,052,216 cases of malaria were diagnosed between 2012 and 2018. There was a gradual increase per year, from 369,178 in 2012 to 652,661 in 2018. After adjusting the data for completeness, the national incidence ranged from 489‰ in 2012 to 603‰ in 2018, with an upward trend (M-K test p-value < 0.001). At the regional level, an upward trend was observed in Adamaoua, Centre without Yaoundé, East, and South regions. There was a positive spatial autocorrelation of the number of malaria incident-cases per district per year as suggested by the Moran's I test (statistic range between 0.11 and 0.53). The crude SIR showed a heterogeneous malaria risk with values ranging from 0.00 to 8.90, meaning that some health districts have a risk 8.9 times higher than the national annual level. The incidence and risk of malaria among under-5 in Cameroon are heterogeneous and vary significantly across health districts and seasons. It is crucial to adapt malaria prevention measures to the specificities of each health district, in order to reduce its burden in health districts where the trend is upward.

Case Definitions of Clinical Malaria in Children from Three Health Districts in the North Region of Cameroon.

Malaria endemicity in Cameroon greatly varies according to ecological environment. In such conditions, parasitaemia, which is associated with fever, may not always suffice to define an episode of clinical malaria. The evaluation of malaria control intervention strategies mostly consists of identifying cases of clinical malaria and is crucial to promote better diagnosis for accurate measurement of the impact of the intervention. We sought out to define and quantify clinical malaria cases in children from three health districts in the Northern region of Cameroon. A cohort study of 6,195 children aged between 6 and 120 months was carried out during the raining season (July to October) between 2013 and 2014. Differential diagnosis of clinical malaria was performed using the parasite density and axillary temperature. At recruitment, patients with malaria-related symptoms (fever [axillary temperature ≥ 37.5°C], chills, severe malaise, headache, or vomiting) and a malaria positive blood smear were classified under clinical malaria group. The malaria attributable fraction was calculated using logistic regression models. Plasmodium falciparum was responsible for over 91% of infections. Children from Pitoa health district had the highest number of asymptomatic infections (45.60%) compared to those from Garoua and Mayo Oulo. The most suitable cut-off for the association between parasite densities and fever was found among children less than 24 months. Overall, parasite densities that ranged above 3,200 parasites per µl of blood could be used to define the malaria attributable fever cases. In groups of children aged between 24 and 59 months and 60 and 94 months, the optimum cut-off parasite density was 6,400 parasites per µl of blood, while children aged between 95 and 120 months had a cut-off of 800 parasites per µl of blood. In the same ecoepidemiological zone, clinical malaria case definitions are influenced by age and location (health district) and this could be considered when evaluating malaria intervention strategies in endemic areas.

A randomized trial of the efficacy of artesunate and three quinine regimens in the treatment of severe malaria in children at the Ebolowa Regional Hospital, Cameroon.

BACKGROUND: Severe malaria is a medical emergency with high mortality in children below 5 years of age especially in sub-Saharan Africa. Recently, quinine has been replaced by artesunate as the first-line drug in the treatment of severe malaria in Cameroon. No local data are yet available on the efficacy of artesunate with respect to the different quinine regimens used in this setting. This study was undertaken at the Ebolowa Regional Hospital (ERH), which is located in a region of perennial transmission of malaria. METHODS: This was a randomized, open-label trial in children aged 3 months to 15 years, admitted in the hospital with severe malaria due to Plasmodium falciparum confirmed on microscopy after informed parental consent. Patients were randomized into four groups. Group 1 (ARTES) received parenteral artesunate at 2.4 mg/kg at H0, H12, H24 and then once daily; Group 2 (QLD) received a loading dose of quinine base at 16.6 mg/kg followed 8 hours later by an eight-hourly maintenance dose of 8.3 mg/kg quinine base; Group 3 (QNLD3) received 8.3 mg/kg quinine base every 8 hours; and, Group 4 (QNLD2) received 12.5 mg/kg quinine base every 12 h. All patients invariably received a minimum of 24 h parenteral treatment, then, oral drugs were prescribed. The endpoints were fever clearance time, time to sit unsupported, time to eat, parasite clearance time, and parasitaemia reduction rate at H24. Survival analysis was used to compare the outcomes. RESULTS: One-hundred and sixteen patients completed the study: 29 in ARTES arm, 28 in QLD arm, 30 in QNLD3 arm, and 29 in QNLD2 arm. There was no major differences in baseline characteristics in the treatment groups. On analysis of endpoints, fever clearance time and parasite clearance time were significantly shorter for artesunate-treated patients than for quinine-treated patients. Parasitaemia reduction rate at H24 was also significantly higher for artesunate. Time to sit unsupported and time to eat were shorter with artesunate, but the difference was not statistically significant. CONCLUSION: Artesunate is more effective than quinine in the treatment of severe malaria in Cameroonian children.

Basic or enhanced clinician training to improve adherence to malaria treatment guidelines: a cluster-randomised trial in two areas of Cameroon.

BACKGROUND: The scale-up of malaria rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs) is intended to improve case management of fever and targeting of artemisinin-based combination therapy. Habitual presumptive treatment has hampered these intentions, suggesting a need for strategies to support behaviour change. We aimed to assess the introduction of RDTs when packaged with basic or enhanced clinician training interventions in Cameroon. METHODS: We did a three-arm, stratified, cluster-randomised trial at 46 public and mission health facilities at two study sites in Cameroon to compare three approaches to malaria diagnosis. Facilities were randomly assigned by a computer program in a 9:19:19 ratio to current practice with microscopy (widely available, used as a control group); RDTs with a basic (1 day) clinician training intervention; or RDTs with an enhanced (3 days) clinician training intervention. Patients (or their carers) and fieldworkers who administered surveys to obtain outcome data were masked to study group assignment. The primary outcome was the proportion of patients treated in accordance with WHO malaria treatment guidelines, which is a composite indicator of whether patients were tested for malaria and given appropriate treatment consistent with the test result. All analyses were by intention to treat. This study is registered at ClinicalTrials.gov, number NCT01350752. FINDINGS: The study took place between June 7 and Dec 14, 2011. The analysis included 681 patients from nine facilities in the control group, 1632 patients from 18 facilities in the basic-training group, and 1669 from 19 facilities in the enhanced-training group. The proportion of patients treated in accordance with malaria guidelines did not improve with either intervention; the adjusted risk ratio (RR) for basic training compared with control was 1·04 (95% CI 0·53-2·07; p=0·90), and for enhanced training compared with control was 1·17 (0·61-2·25; p=0·62). Inappropriate use of antimalarial drugs after a negative test was reduced from 84% (201/239) in the control group to 52% (413/796) in the basic-training group (unadjusted RR 0·63, 0·28-1·43; p=0·25) and to 31% (232/759) in the enhanced-training group (0·29, 0·11-0·77; p=0·02). INTERPRETATION: Enhanced clinician training, designed to translate knowledge into prescribing practice and improve quality of care, has the potential to halve overtreatment in public and mission health facilities in Cameroon. Basic training is unlikely to be sufficient to support the behaviour change required for the introduction of RDTs.