Working from home: small business performance and the COVID-19 pandemic.

Abstract: During the COVID-19 pandemic, many firms began operating in a working-from-home environment (WFH). This study focuses on the relationship between WFH and small business performance during the pandemic. We built a theoretical framework based on firm profit maximization, compiled an up-to-date (March through November) real-time daily and weekly multifaceted data set, and empirically estimated fixed-effect panel data, fractional logit, and multilevel mixed effects models to test our hypotheses. We find that in states with higher WFH rates, small businesses performed better overall with industry variations, controlling for the local pandemic, economic, demographic, and policy factors. We also find that WFH rates increased even after stay-at-home orders (SHOs) were rescinded. With the ready technology and practice of WFH in the pandemic, our robust empirics confirm our theory and hypotheses and demonstrate WFH as a potential force that may expedite "creative destruction" instance and permanently impact industrial structure and peoples' work lives. Plain English summary: The Rise of Working from Home (WFH) as a Silver Lining and "Creative Destruction" in the Pandemic: WFH Helps Small Businesses Perform Better with Industry Variations and Continues to Shine after Stay-at-Home Orders Ended. This study focuses on the role of working from home (WFH) for small business performance during the COVID-19 pandemic. We built a theoretical framework based on firm profit maximization and identified WFH as a rational business choice. We then compiled a real-time multifaceted data set, estimated panel fixed-effect, fractional logit, and multilevel mixed effects models, and find that (1) small businesses in states with higher WFH rates performed better with industry variations, controlling for local pandemic and socioeconomic factors; and (2) WFH rates increased after stay-at-home orders were rescinded. Our study demonstrates WFH as a potential "creative destruction" force that may expedite our technologically ready WFH adoption and permanently impact industrial structure and peoples' work lives.

When a Palearctic bacterium meets a Nearctic insect vector: Genetic and ecological insights into the emergence of the grapevine Flavescence dorée epidemics in Europe.

Flavescence dorée (FD) is a European quarantine grapevine disease transmitted by the Deltocephalinae leafhopper Scaphoideus titanus. Whereas this vector had been introduced from North America, the possible European origin of FD phytoplasma needed to be challenged and correlated with ecological and genetic drivers of FD emergence. For that purpose, a survey of genetic diversity of these phytoplasmas in grapevines, S. titanus, black alders, alder leafhoppers and clematis were conducted in five European countries. Out of 132 map genotypes, only 11 were associated to FD outbreaks, three were detected in clematis, whereas 127 were detected in alder trees, alder leafhoppers or in grapevines out of FD outbreaks. Most of the alder trees were found infected, including 8% with FD genotypes M6, M38 and M50, also present in alders neighboring FD-free vineyards and vineyard-free areas. The Macropsinae Oncopsis alni could transmit genotypes unable to achieve transmission by S. titanus, while the Deltocephalinae Allygus spp. and Orientus ishidae transmitted M38 and M50 that proved to be compatible with S. titanus. Variability of vmpA and vmpB adhesin-like genes clearly discriminated 3 genetic clusters. Cluster Vmp-I grouped genotypes only transmitted by O. alni, while clusters Vmp-II and -III grouped genotypes transmitted by Deltocephalinae leafhoppers. Interestingly, adhesin repeated domains evolved independently in cluster Vmp-I, whereas in clusters Vmp-II and-III showed recent duplications. Latex beads coated with various ratio of VmpA of clusters II and I, showed that cluster II VmpA promoted enhanced adhesion to the Deltocephalinae Euscelidius variegatus epithelial cells and were better retained in both E. variegatus and S. titanus midguts. Our data demonstrate that most FD phytoplasmas are endemic to European alders. Their emergence as grapevine epidemic pathogens appeared restricted to some genetic variants pre-existing in alders, whose compatibility to S. titanus correlates with different vmp gene sequences and VmpA binding properties.

Genetic diversity and population genetics of large lungworms (Dictyocaulus, Nematoda) in wild deer in Hungary.

Dictyocaulus nematode worms live as parasites in the lower airways of ungulates and can cause significant disease in both wild and farmed hosts. This study represents the first population genetic analysis of large lungworms in wildlife. Specifically, we quantify genetic variation in Dictyocaulus lungworms from wild deer (red deer, fallow deer and roe deer) in Hungary, based on mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (cox1) sequence data, using population genetic and phylogenetic analyses. The studied Dictyocaulus taxa display considerable genetic diversity. At least one cryptic species and a new parasite-host relationship are revealed by our molecular study. Population genetic analyses for Dictyocaulus eckerti revealed high gene flow amongst weakly structured spatial populations that utilise the three host deer species considered here. Our results suggest that D. eckerti is a widespread generalist parasite in ungulates, with a diverse genetic backround and high evolutionary potential. In contrast, evidence of cryptic genetic structure at regional geographic scales was observed for Dictyocaulus capreolus, which infects just one host species, suggesting it is a specialist within the studied area. D. capreolus displayed lower genetic diversity overall, with only moderate gene flow compared to the closely related D. eckerti. We suggest that the differing vagility and dispersal behaviour of hosts are important contributing factors to the population structure of lungworms, and possibly other nematode parasites with single-host life cycles. Our findings are of relevance for the management of lungworms in deer farms and wild deer populations.

Expression of the pupal determinant broad during metamorphic and neotenic development of the strepsipteran Xenos vesparum Rossi.

Derived members of the endoparasitic order Strepsiptera have acquired an extreme form of sexual dimorphism whereby males undergo metamorphosis and exist as free-living adults while females remain larviform, reaching sexual maturity within their hosts. Expression of the transcription factor, broad (br) has been shown to be required for pupal development in insects in which both sexes progress through metamorphosis. A surge of br expression appears in the last larval instar, as the epidermis begins pupal development. Here we ask if br is also up-regulated in the last larval instar of male Xenos vesparum Rossi (Stylopidae), and whether such expression is lost in neotenic larviform females. We clone three isoforms of br from X. vesparum (Xv'br), and show that they share greatest similarity to the Z1, Z3 and Z4 isoforms of other insect species. By monitoring Xv'br expression throughout development, we detect elevated levels of total br expression and the Xv'Z1, Xv'Z3, and Xv'Z4 isoforms in the last larval instar of males, but not females. By focusing on Xv'br expression in individual samples, we show that the levels of Xv'BTB and Xv'Z3 in the last larval instar of males are bimodal, with some males expressing 3X greater levels of Xv'br than fourth instar femlaes. Taken together, these data suggest that neoteny (and endoparasitism) in females of Strepsiptera Stylopidia could be linked to the suppression of pupal determination. Our work identifies a difference in metamorphic gene expression that is associated with neoteny, and thus provides insights into the relationship between metamorphic and neotenic development.

High altitude exposure alters gene expression levels of DNA repair enzymes, and modulates fatty acid metabolism by SIRT4 induction in human skeletal muscle.

We hypothesized that high altitude exposure and physical activity associated with the attack to Mt Everest could alter mRNA levels of DNA repair and metabolic enzymes and cause oxidative stress-related challenges in human skeletal muscle. Therefore, we have tested eight male mountaineers (25-40 years old) before and after five weeks of exposure to high altitude, which included attacks to peaks above 8000m. Data gained from biopsy samples from vastus lateralis revealed increased mRNA levels of both cytosolic and mitochondrial superoxide dismutase. On the other hand 8-oxoguanine DNA glycosylase (OGG1) mRNA levels tended to decrease while Ku70 mRNA levels and SIRT6 decreased with altitude exposure. The levels of SIRT1 and SIRT3 mRNA did not change significantly. However, SIRT4 mRNA level increased significantly, which could indicate decreases in fatty acid metabolism, since SIRT4 is one of the important regulators of this process. Within the limitations of this human study, data suggest that combined effects of high altitude exposure and physical activity climbing to Mt. Everest, could jeopardize the integrity of the particular chromosome.

Re-visiting phylogenetic and taxonomic relationships in the genus Saga (Insecta: Orthoptera).

Twelve of the 13 bushcricket species of the Saga genus are bisexuals and diploids, except the parthenogenetic and tetraploid bush cricket, Saga pedo. Despite a continuous research effort stretching through the 1900s, the taxonomic relationships of the Saga species are still disputed. In this study, our primary aim was to reveal natural relationships of the European Saga species and three of their Asian relatives, with special attention to the problematic taxonomy of two subspecies: S. campbelli campbelli and S. c. gracilis. Following a phylogenetic analysis of eight species, a comprehensive study was carried out on the above three taxa by using acoustic and morphometric approaches in parallel. Our phylogenetic data showed that European Saga species evolved from a monophyletic lineage. The geographical transitional species S. cappadocica was positioned between European and Asian lineages supporting the idea that the European Saga lineage originated phylogeographically from the Asian clade. The above results showed better agreement with the morphological data than with earlier ones based either on karyology or acoustic information only. After reviewing our data, we concluded that Saga pedo has most likely evolved from S. c. gracilis and not from S. rammei or S. ephippigera, as proposed by earlier studies. S. c. gracilis shares the same ITS2 haplotype with S. pedo, indicating that the latter could have evolved from populations of the former, probably through whole genome duplication. Based on acoustic and morphometric differences, we propose to elevate the two subspecies, S. campbelli campbelli and S. c. gracilis, to species level status, as Saga gracilis Kis 1962, and Saga campbelli Uvarov 1921. The present work sets the stage for future genetic and experimental investigations of Saginae and highlights the need for additional comprehensive analysis involving more Asian Saga species.

Phylogeny and DNA barcoding of inquiline oak gallwasps (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae) of the Western Palaearctic.

We examine phylogenetic relationships within the Synergus complex of herbivorous inquiline gallwasps (Hymenoptera; Cynipidae; Synergini) associated with cynipid host galls on oak, a biologically diverse group whose genus-level morphological taxonomy has long been considered stable but whose species level taxonomy is problematic. We incorporate data for over 70% of recognised Western Palaearctic species in five morphology-based genera (Ceroptres, Saphonecrus, Synergus, Synophrus, Ufo), comprising sequence for two mitochondrial loci (coxI, cytb) and one nuclear locus (28S D2). In particular, we assess the evidence for monophyly of two long-established, morphology-defined sections within the genus Synergus that differ in a range of biological traits. To aid analyses of ecological interactions within oak cynipid communities, we also consider the utility of cytochrome oxidase I (coxI) DNA barcodes in the oak inquilines. In this assessment, we do not assume that species are delineated at a single threshold value of sequence divergence for a single gene, but examine concordance in the composition of molecular operational Taxonomic units (MOTUs) across a range of sequence divergences in each gene and across genes. We also assess the impact of sampling effort on MOTU stability. Phylogenetic reconstructions for all three loci support monophyly for Synergus and Synophrus, but reject monophyly for Saphonecrus and for the two sections within Synergus. The suites of traits associated with the two sections of the genus Synergus are thus homoplasious. All three loci also reject monophyly for three Synergus species (S. hayneanus, S. pallipes, S. umbraculus). Sequences for each locus identify robust MOTUs that are largely concordant across loci for a range of cut-off values. Though many MOTU's correspond to recognised Linnean species, there is significant, multigene disagreement between groupings supported by morphology and sequence data, with both allocation of different morphospecies to the same MOTU and allocation of the same morphospecies to multiple MOTUs, regardless of cut-off value. Our results imply that while DNA barcoding has considerable utility within this group, morphology-based identification needs major revision at both genus and species levels. Further, lifehistory traits currently attributed to single morphospecies probably confound attributes of multiple lineages. Revealing patterns of character state evolution in Synergus requires collection of new host association and life history data explicitly linked to DNA barcode data for the specimens concerned.

Evidence for widespread cryptic sexual generations in apparently purely asexual Andricus gallwasps.

Oak gallwasps (Hymenoptera, Cynipidae, Cynipini) are one of seven major animal taxa that commonly reproduce by cyclical parthenogenesis (CP). A major question in research on CP taxa is the frequency with which lineages lose their sexual generations, and diversify as purely asexual radiations. Most oak gallwasp species are only known from an asexual generation, and secondary loss of sex has been conclusively demonstrated in several species, particularly members of the holarctic genus Andricus. This raises the possibility of widespread secondary loss of sex in the Cynipini, and of diversification within purely parthenogenetic lineages. We use two approaches based on analyses of allele frequency data to test for cryptic sexual generations in eight apparently asexual European species distributed through a major western palaearctic lineage of the gallwasp genus Andricus. All species showing adequate levels of polymorphism (7/8) showed signatures of sex compatible with cyclical parthenogenesis. We also use DNA sequence data to test the hypothesis that ignorance of these sexual generations (despite extensive study on this group) results from failure to discriminate among known but morphologically indistinguishable sexual generations. This hypothesis is supported: 35 sequences attributed by leading cynipid taxonomists to a single sexual adult morphospecies, Andricus burgundus, were found to represent the sexual generations of at least six Andricus species. We confirm cryptic sexual generations in a total of 11 Andricus species, suggesting that secondary loss of sex is rare in Andricus.

High altitude and oxidative stress.

Exposure to high altitude, which is associated with decreased oxygen pressure, could result in oxidative/reductive stress, enhanced generation of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (RONS), and related oxidative damage to lipids, proteins, and DNA. The severity of oxidative challenge is related to the degree of altitude. A wide range of RONS generating systems are activated during exposure to high altitude, including the mitochondrial electron transport chain, xanthine oxidase, and nitric oxide synthase. High altitude appears to weaken the enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidant systems, and increased nutritional uptake of antioxidant vitamins are beneficial to reduce the altitude-induced oxidative damage. The pattern of high altitude exposure-associated oxidative damage resembles ischemia/reperfusion injury. The adaptive process to this oxidative challenge requires a relatively long period of time. Physical exercise or an enhanced level of physical activity at high altitude, exacerbates the extent of the oxidative challenge. Therefore, special attention is necessary to curb the degree of oxidative stress.

The infrastructure of obesity and the obesity epidemic: implications for public policy.

If present increases in the rate of obesity persist, by 2015 half of the population in the US could be obese. This article presents the case that the reason for the epidemic is an 'infrastructure of obesity' that fuels the phenomenon. To control this epidemic, public policy in general and health policy in particular need to shift from market oriented policies that favour individual choice to policies that regulate the food supply, to help dismantle the infrastructure of obesity. Our research shows that state regulations have made some progress in the fight against obesity.