Bacterial and fungal communities in sub-Arctic tundra heaths are shaped by contrasting snow accumulation and nutrient availability.

Climate change is affecting winter snow conditions significantly in northern ecosystems but the effects of the changing conditions for soil microbial communities are not well-understood. We utilized naturally occurring differences in snow accumulation to understand how the wintertime subnivean conditions shape bacterial and fungal communities in dwarf shrub-dominated sub-Arctic Fennoscandian tundra sampled in mid-winter, early, and late growing season. Phospholipid fatty acid (PLFA) and quantitative PCR analyses indicated that fungal abundance was higher in windswept tundra heaths with low snow accumulation and lower nutrient availability. This was associated with clear differences in the microbial community structure throughout the season. Members of Clavaria spp. and Sebacinales were especially dominant in the windswept heaths. Bacterial biomass proxies were higher in the snow-accumulating tundra heaths in the late growing season but there were only minor differences in the biomass or community structure in winter. Bacterial communities were dominated by members of Alphaproteobacteria, Actinomycetota, and Acidobacteriota and were less affected by the snow conditions than the fungal communities. The results suggest that small-scale spatial patterns in snow accumulation leading to a mosaic of differing tundra heath vegetation shapes bacterial and fungal communities as well as soil carbon and nutrient availability.

Glycogen synthase downregulation rescues the amylopectinosis of murine RBCK1 deficiency.

Longer glucan chains tend to precipitate. Glycogen, by far the largest mammalian glucan and the largest molecule in the cytosol with up to 55 000 glucoses, does not, due to a highly regularly branched spherical structure that allows it to be perfused with cytosol. Aberrant construction of glycogen leads it to precipitate, accumulate into polyglucosan bodies that resemble plant starch amylopectin and cause disease. This pathology, amylopectinosis, is caused by mutations in a series of single genes whose functions are under active study toward understanding the mechanisms of proper glycogen construction. Concurrently, we are characterizing the physicochemical particularities of glycogen and polyglucosans associated with each gene. These genes include GBE1, EPM2A and EPM2B, which respectively encode the glycogen branching enzyme, the glycogen phosphatase laforin and the laforin-interacting E3 ubiquitin ligase malin, for which an unequivocal function is not yet known. Mutations in GBE1 cause a motor neuron disease (adult polyglucosan body disease), and mutations in EPM2A or EPM2B a fatal progressive myoclonus epilepsy (Lafora disease). RBCK1 deficiency causes an amylopectinosis with fatal skeletal and cardiac myopathy (polyglucosan body myopathy 1, OMIM# 615895). RBCK1 is a component of the linear ubiquitin chain assembly complex, with unique functions including generating linear ubiquitin chains and ubiquitinating hydroxyl (versus canonical amine) residues, including of glycogen. In a mouse model we now show (i) that the amylopectinosis of RBCK1 deficiency, like in adult polyglucosan body disease and Lafora disease, affects the brain; (ii) that RBCK1 deficiency glycogen, like in adult polyglucosan body disease and Lafora disease, has overlong branches; (iii) that unlike adult polyglucosan body disease but like Lafora disease, RBCK1 deficiency glycogen is hyperphosphorylated; and finally (iv) that unlike laforin-deficient Lafora disease but like malin-deficient Lafora disease, RBCK1 deficiency's glycogen hyperphosphorylation is limited to precipitated polyglucosans. In summary, the fundamental glycogen pathology of RBCK1 deficiency recapitulates that of malin-deficient Lafora disease. Additionally, we uncover sex and genetic background effects in RBCK1 deficiency on organ- and brain-region specific amylopectinoses, and in the brain on consequent neuroinflammation and behavioural deficits. Finally, we exploit the portion of the basic glycogen pathology that is common to adult polyglucosan body disease, both forms of Lafora disease and RBCK1 deficiency, namely overlong branches, to show that a unified approach based on downregulating glycogen synthase, the enzyme that elongates glycogen branches, can rescue all four diseases.

GRINL1A Complex Transcription Unit Containing GCOM1, MYZAP, and POLR2M Genes Associates with Fully Penetrant Recessive Dilated Cardiomyopathy.

Background: Familial dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) is a monogenic disorder typically inherited in an autosomal dominant pattern. We have identified two Finnish families with familial cardiomyopathy that is not explained by a variant in any previously known cardiomyopathy gene. We describe the cardiac phenotype related to homozygous truncating GCOM1 variants. Methods and Results: This study included two probands and their relatives. All the participants are of Finnish ethnicity. Whole-exome sequencing was used to test the probands; bi-directional Sanger sequencing was used to identify the GCOM1 variants in probands' family members. Clinical evaluation was performed, medical records and death certificates were obtained. Immunohistochemical analysis of myocardial samples was conducted. A homozygous GCOM1 variant was identified altogether in six individuals, all considered to be affected. None of the nine heterozygous family members fulfilled any cardiomyopathy criteria. Heart failure was the leading clinical feature, and the patients may have had a tendency for atrial arrhythmias. Conclusions: This study demonstrates the significance of GCOM1 variants as a cause of human cardiomyopathy and highlights the importance of searching for new candidate genes when targeted gene panels do not yield a positive outcome.

Deficient H2A.Z deposition is associated with genesis of uterine leiomyoma.

One in four women suffers from uterine leiomyomas (ULs)-benign tumours of the uterine wall, also known as uterine fibroids-at some point in premenopausal life. ULs can cause excessive bleeding, pain and infertility1, and are a common cause of hysterectomy2. They emerge through at least three distinct genetic drivers: mutations in MED12 or FH, or genomic rearrangement of HMGA23. Here we created genome-wide datasets, using DNA, RNA, assay for transposase-accessible chromatin (ATAC), chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) and HiC chromatin immunoprecipitation (HiChIP) sequencing of primary tissues to profoundly understand the genesis of UL. We identified somatic mutations in genes encoding six members of the SRCAP histone-loading complex4, and found that germline mutations in the SRCAP members YEATS4 and ZNHIT1 predispose women to UL. Tumours bearing these mutations showed defective deposition of the histone variant H2A.Z. In ULs, H2A.Z occupancy correlated positively with chromatin accessibility and gene expression, and negatively with DNA methylation, but these correlations were weak in tumours bearing SRCAP complex mutations. In these tumours, open chromatin emerged at transcription start sites where H2A.Z was lost, which was associated with upregulation of genes. Furthermore, YEATS4 defects were associated with abnormal upregulation of bivalent embryonic stem cell genes, as previously shown in mice5. Our work describes a potential mechanism of tumorigenesis-epigenetic instability caused by deficient H2A.Z deposition-and suggests that ULs arise through an aberrant differentiation program driven by deranged chromatin, emanating from a small number of mutually exclusive driver mutations.

Canine Lafora Disease: An Unstable Repeat Expansion Disorder.

Canine Lafora disease is a recessively inherited, rapidly progressing neurodegenerative disease caused by the accumulation of abnormally constructed insoluble glycogen Lafora bodies in the brain and other tissues due to the loss of NHL repeat containing E3 ubiquitin protein ligase 1 (NHLRC1). Dogs have a dodecamer repeat sequence within the NHLRC1 gene, which is prone to unstable (dynamic) expansion and loss of function. Progressive signs of Lafora disease include hypnic jerks, reflex and spontaneous myoclonus, seizures, vision loss, ataxia and decreased cognitive function. We studied five dogs (one Chihuahua, two French Bulldogs, one Griffon Bruxellois, one mixed breed) with clinical signs associated with canine Lafora disease. Identification of polyglucosan bodies (Lafora bodies) in myocytes supported diagnosis in the French Bulldogs; muscle areas close to the myotendinous junction and the myofascial union segment had the highest yield of inclusions. Postmortem examination of one of the French Bulldogs revealed brain Lafora bodies. Genetic testing for the known canine NHLRC1 mutation confirmed the presence of a homozygous mutation associated with canine Lafora disease. Our results show that Lafora disease extends beyond previous known breeds to the French Bulldog, Griffon Bruxellois and even mixed-breed dogs, emphasizing the likely species-wide nature of this genetic problem. It also establishes these breeds as animal models for the devastating human disease. Genetic testing should be used when designing breeding strategies to determine the frequency of the NHLRC1 mutation in affected breeds. Lafora diseases should be suspected in any older dog presenting with myoclonus, hypnic jerks or photoconvulsions.

Reindeer grazing history determines the responses of subarctic soil fungal communities to warming and fertilization.

Composition and functioning of arctic soil fungal communities may alter rapidly due to the ongoing trends of warmer temperatures, shifts in nutrient availability, and shrub encroachment. In addition, the communities may also be intrinsically shaped by heavy grazing, which may locally induce an ecosystem change that couples with increased soil temperature and nutrients and where shrub encroachment is less likely to occur than in lightly grazed conditions. We tested how 4 yr of experimental warming and fertilization affected organic soil fungal communities in sites with decadal history of either heavy or light reindeer grazing using high-throughput sequencing of the internal transcribed spacer 2 ribosomal DNA region. Grazing history largely overrode the impacts of short-term warming and fertilization in determining the composition of fungal communities. The less diverse fungal communities under light grazing showed more pronounced responses to experimental treatments when compared with the communities under heavy grazing. Yet, ordination approaches revealed distinct treatment responses under both grazing intensities. If grazing shifts the fungal communities in Arctic ecosystems to a different and more diverse state, this shift may dictate ecosystem responses to further abiotic changes. This indicates that the intensity of grazing cannot be left out when predicting future changes in fungi-driven processes in the tundra.

Human cell transformation by combined lineage conversion and oncogene expression.

Cancer is the most complex genetic disease known, with mutations implicated in more than 250 genes. However, it is still elusive which specific mutations found in human patients lead to tumorigenesis. Here we show that a combination of oncogenes that is characteristic of liver cancer (CTNNB1, TERT, MYC) induces senescence in human fibroblasts and primary hepatocytes. However, reprogramming fibroblasts to a liver progenitor fate, induced hepatocytes (iHeps), makes them sensitive to transformation by the same oncogenes. The transformed iHeps are highly proliferative, tumorigenic in nude mice, and bear gene expression signatures of liver cancer. These results show that tumorigenesis is triggered by a combination of three elements: the set of driver mutations, the cellular lineage, and the state of differentiation of the cells along the lineage. Our results provide direct support for the role of cell identity as a key determinant in transformation and establish a paradigm for studying the dynamic role of oncogenic drivers in human tumorigenesis.

Clinical and Genetic Findings in 28 American Cocker Spaniels with Aural Ceruminous Gland Hyperplasia and Ectasia.

American Cocker Spaniels (ACSs) develop aural ceruminous gland hyperplasia and ectasia more often than dogs of other breeds. Data on the cause and development of these breed characteristic histopathological changes are lacking. We performed video-otoscopic examinations and dermatological work-up on 28 ACSs, obtained aural biopsies from each dog and assessed the statistical associations between the presence of ceruminous gland hyperplasia and ectasia and disease history, clinical or microbiological findings and underlying cause of otitis externa (OE). Histological lesions of ceruminous gland hyperplasia and ectasia were observed in aural biopsies from 6/13 clinically healthy ears and 13/15 ears with OE from 19/28 examined dogs. Nine of 28 dogs had histologically normal ceruminous glands (odds ratio [OR] 6.2, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.1-36.6). Bacterial growth in microbiological culture of aural exudate (OR 14.1, 95% CI 2.1-95.3) was associated with ceruminous glandular changes, whereas previous history of OE, cutaneous findings or underlying allergies were not. Pedigree analysis and a genome-wide association study (GWAS) were performed on 18 affected and eight unaffected dogs based on histopathological diagnosis. While the GWAS indicated a tentative, but not statistically significant, association of ceruminous gland hyperplasia and ectasia with chromosome 31, a larger cohort is needed to confirm this preliminary result. Based on our results, ceruminous gland hyperplasia and ectasia may also precede clinical signs of OE in ACSs and a genetic aetiological component is likely Further studies with larger cohorts are warranted to verify our preliminary results.

Gys1 antisense therapy rescues neuropathological bases of murine Lafora disease.

Lafora disease is a fatal progressive myoclonus epilepsy. At root, it is due to constant acquisition of branches that are too long in a subgroup of glycogen molecules, leading them to precipitate and accumulate into Lafora bodies, which drive a neuroinflammatory response and neurodegeneration. As a potential therapy, we aimed to downregulate glycogen synthase, the enzyme responsible for glycogen branch elongation, in mouse models of the disease. We synthesized an antisense oligonucleotide (Gys1-ASO) that targets the mRNA of the brain-expressed glycogen synthase 1 gene (Gys1). We administered Gys1-ASO by intracerebroventricular injection and analysed the pathological hallmarks of Lafora disease, namely glycogen accumulation, Lafora body formation, and neuroinflammation. Gys1-ASO prevented Lafora body formation in young mice that had not yet formed them. In older mice that already exhibited Lafora bodies, Gys1-ASO inhibited further accumulation, markedly preventing large Lafora bodies characteristic of advanced disease. Inhibition of Lafora body formation was associated with prevention of astrogliosis and strong trends towards correction of dysregulated expression of disease immune and neuroinflammatory markers. Lafora disease manifests gradually in previously healthy teenagers. Our work provides proof of principle that an antisense oligonucleotide targeting the GYS1 mRNA could prevent, and halt progression of, this catastrophic epilepsy.

Biallelic loss-of-function in NRAP is a cause of recessive dilated cardiomyopathy.

BACKGROUND: Familial dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) is typically a monogenic disorder with dominant inheritance. Although over 40 genes have been linked to DCM, more than half of the patients undergoing comprehensive genetic testing are left without molecular diagnosis. Recently, biallelic protein-truncating variants (PTVs) in the nebulin-related anchoring protein gene (NRAP) were identified in a few patients with sporadic DCM. METHODS AND RESULTS: We determined the frequency of rare NRAP variants in a cohort of DCM patients and control patients to further evaluate role of this gene in cardiomyopathies. A retrospective analysis of our internal variant database consisting of 31,639 individuals who underwent genetic testing (either panel or direct exome sequencing) was performed. The DCM group included 577 patients with either a confirmed or suspected DCM diagnosis. A control cohort of 31,062 individuals, including 25,912 individuals with non-cardiac (control group) and 5,150 with non-DCM cardiac indications (Non-DCM cardiac group). Biallelic (n = 6) or two (n = 5) NRAP variants (two PTVs or PTV+missense) were identified in 11 unrelated probands with DCM (1.9%) but none of the controls. None of the 11 probands had an alternative molecular diagnosis. Family member testing supports co-segregation. Biallelic or potentially biallelic NRAP variants were enriched in DCM vs. controls (OR 1052, p<0.0001). Based on the frequency of NRAP PTVs in the gnomAD reference population, and predicting full penetrance, biallelic NRAP variants could explain 0.25%-2.46% of all DCM cases. CONCLUSION: Loss-of-function in NRAP is a cause for autosomal recessive dilated cardiomyopathy, supporting its inclusion in comprehensive genetic testing.

An inducible glycogen synthase-1 knockout halts but does not reverse Lafora disease progression in mice.

Malstructured glycogen accumulates over time in Lafora disease (LD) and precipitates into Lafora bodies (LBs), leading to neurodegeneration and intractable fatal epilepsy. Constitutive reduction of glycogen synthase-1 (GYS1) activity prevents murine LD, but the effect of GYS1 reduction later in disease course is unknown. Our goal was to knock out Gys1 in laforin (Epm2a)-deficient LD mice after disease onset to determine whether LD can be halted in midcourse, or even reversed. We generated Epm2a-deficient LD mice with tamoxifen-inducible Cre-mediated Gys1 knockout. Tamoxifen was administered at 4 months and disease progression assessed at 12 months. We verified successful knockout at mRNA and protein levels using droplet digital PCR and Western blots. Glycogen determination and periodic acid-Schiff-diastase staining were used to analyze glycogen and LB accumulation. Immunohistochemistry using astrocytic (glial fibrillary acidic protein) and microglial (ionized calcium-binding adapter molecule 1) markers was performed to investigate neuroinflammation. In the disease-relevant organ, the brain, Gys1 mRNA levels were reduced by 85% and GYS1 protein depleted. Glycogen accumulation was halted at the 4-month level, while LB formation and neuroinflammation were significantly, though incompletely, prevented. Skeletal muscle analysis confirmed that Gys1 knockout inhibits glycogen and LB accumulation. However, tamoxifen-independent Cre recombination precluded determination of disease halting or reversal in this tissue. Our study shows that Gys1 knockdown is a powerful means to prevent LD progression, but this approach did not reduce brain glycogen or LBs to levels below those at the time of intervention. These data suggest that endogenous mechanisms to clear brain LBs are absent or, possibly, compromised in laforin-deficient murine LD.

SUCLA2 Arg407Trp mutation can cause a nonprogressive movement disorder - deafness syndrome.

SUCLA2 is a component of mitochondrial succinate-CoA ligase and nucleotide diphosphokinase activities. Its absence results in Krebs cycle failure, mitochondrial DNA depletion, and a childhood-fatal encephalomyopathy. We describe a purely neurologic allelic form of the disease consisting of deafness, putamenal hyperintensity on MRI and a myoclonic-dystonic movement disorder unchanging from childhood into, so far, the late fourth decade. We show that succinate supplementation circumvents the Krebs cycle block, but does not correct the neurologic disease. Our patients' Arg407Trp mutation has been reported in children with (yet) no MRI abnormalities. It remains possible that early succinate supplementation could impact the disease.

Sensitive quantification of α-glucans in mouse tissues, cell cultures, and human cerebrospinal fluid.

The soluble α-polyglucan glycogen is a central metabolite enabling transient glucose storage to suit cellular energy needs. Glycogen storage diseases (GSDs) comprise over 15 entities caused by generalized or tissue-specific defects in enzymes of glycogen metabolism. In several, e.g. in Lafora disease caused by the absence of the glycogen phosphatase laforin or its interacting partner malin, degradation-resistant abnormally structured insoluble glycogen accumulates. Sensitive quantification methods for soluble and insoluble glycogen are critical to research, including therapeutic studies, in such diseases. This paper establishes methodological advancements relevant to glycogen metabolism investigations generally, and GSDs. Introducing a pre-extraction incubation method, we measure degradation-resistant glycogen in as little as 30 mg of skeletal muscle or a single hippocampus from Lafora disease mouse models. The digestion-resistant glycogen correlates with the disease-pathogenic insoluble glycogen and can readily be detected in very young mice where glycogen accumulation has just begun. Second, we establish a high-sensitivity glucose assay with detection of ATP depletion, enabling 1) quantification of α-glucans in cell culture using a medium-throughput assay suitable for assessment of candidate glycogen synthesis inhibitors, and 2) discovery of α-glucan material in healthy human cerebrospinal fluid, establishing a novel methodological platform for biomarker analyses in Lafora disease and other GSDs.

Encroachment of shrubs into subalpine grasslands in the Pyrenees modifies the structure of soil fungal communities and soil properties.

The encroachment of shrubs into grasslands is common in terrestrial ecosystems dominated by grass. Land abandonment and favourable climatic trends in recent decades have favoured the expansion of shrubs into subalpine grasslands in many mountainous regions across Europe. The advance of the succession from grassland to shrubland is expected to have a major impact on ecosystem functioning. We used DNA metabarcoding to assess whether the structure of soil fungal communities varied along the succession from subalpine grassland to shrubland in the Pyrenees, and investigated whether shrub encroachment was associated with changes in soil properties. The expansion of shrubs increased the soil C:N ratio and/or reduced the N, P or K contents. Plant-driven changes in soil properties were strongly associated with the compositional turnover of fungi, including arbuscular mycorrhizal, ectomycorrhizal, ericoid, root endophytic, saprotrophic, lichenised and pathogenic fungi. Total richness and the richness of most functional groups were correlated with soil P, N and the C:N or N:P ratios. We show that the interplay between abiotic factors (changes in soil properties) and biotic factors (occurrence and identity of shrubs) played a key role in the structure and uniqueness of soil fungal communities along the succession.

Lafora disease - from pathogenesis to treatment strategies.

Lafora disease is a severe, autosomal recessive, progressive myoclonus epilepsy. The disease usually manifests in previously healthy adolescents, and death commonly occurs within 10 years of symptom onset. Lafora disease is caused by loss-of-function mutations in EPM2A or NHLRC1, which encode laforin and malin, respectively. The absence of either protein results in poorly branched, hyperphosphorylated glycogen, which precipitates, aggregates and accumulates into Lafora bodies. Evidence from Lafora disease genetic mouse models indicates that these intracellular inclusions are a principal driver of neurodegeneration and neurological disease. The integration of current knowledge on the function of laforin-malin as an interacting complex suggests that laforin recruits malin to parts of glycogen molecules where overly long glucose chains are forming, so as to counteract further chain extension. In the absence of either laforin or malin function, long glucose chains in specific glycogen molecules extrude water, form double helices and drive precipitation of those molecules, which over time accumulate into Lafora bodies. In this article, we review the genetic, clinical, pathological and molecular aspects of Lafora disease. We also discuss traditional antiseizure treatments for this condition, as well as exciting therapeutic advances based on the downregulation of brain glycogen synthesis and disease gene replacement.

Maternal Inheritance of a Recessive RBP4 Defect in Canine Congenital Eye Disease.

Maternally skewed transmission of traits has been associated with genomic imprinting and oocyte-derived mRNA. We report canine congenital eye malformations, caused by an amino acid deletion (K12del) near the N terminus of retinol-binding protein (RBP4). The disease is only expressed when both dam and offspring are deletion homozygotes. RBP carries vitamin A (retinol) from hepatic stores to peripheral tissues, including the placenta and developing eye, where it is required to synthesize retinoic acid. Gestational vitamin A deficiency is a known risk factor for ocular birth defects. The K12del mutation disrupts RBP folding in vivo, decreasing its secretion from hepatocytes to serum. The maternal penetrance effect arises from an impairment in the sequential transfer of retinol across the placenta, via RBP encoded by maternal and fetal genomes. Our results demonstrate a mode of recessive maternal inheritance, with a physiological basis, and they extend previous observations on dominant-negative RBP4 alleles in humans.

Nationwide genetic testing towards eliminating Lafora disease from Miniature Wirehaired Dachshunds in the United Kingdom.

BACKGROUND: Canine DNA-testing has become an important tool in purebred dog breeding and many breeders use genetic testing results when planning their breeding strategies. In addition, information obtained from testing of hundreds dogs in one breed gives valuable information about the breed-wide genotype frequency of disease associated allele. Lafora disease is a late onset, recessively inherited genetic disease which is diagnosed in Miniature Wirehaired Dachshunds (MWHD). It is one of the most severe forms of canine epilepsy leading to neurodegeneration and, frequently euthanasia within a few years of diagnosis. Canine Lafora disease is caused by a dodecamer repeat expansion mutation in the NHLRC1 gene and a DNA test is available to identify homozygous dogs at risk, carriers and dogs free of the mutation. RESULTS: Blood samples were collected from 733 MWHDs worldwide, mostly of UK origin, for canine Lafora disease testing. Among the tested MWHD population 7.0% were homozygous for the mutation and at risk for Lafora disease. In addition, 234 dogs were heterozygous, indicating a carrier frequency of 31.9% in the tested population. Among the tested MWHDs, the mutant allele frequency was 0.2. In addition, data from the tested dogs over 6 years (2012-2017) indicated that the frequency of the homozygous and carrier dogs has decreased from 10.4% to 2.7% and 41.5% to 25.7%, respectively among MWHDs tested. As a consequence, the frequency of dogs free of the mutation has increased from 48.1% to 71.6%. CONCLUSIONS: This study provides valuable data for the MWHD community and shows that the DNA test is a useful tool for the breeders to prevent occurrence of Lafora disease in MWHDs. DNA testing has, over 6 years, helped to decrease the frequency of carriers and dogs at risk. Additionally, the DNA test can continue to be used to slowly eradicate the disease-causing mutation in the breed. However, this should be done carefully, over time, to avoid further compromising the genetic diversity of the breed. The DNA test also provides a diagnostic tool for veterinarians if they are presented with a dog that shows clinical signs associated with canine Lafora disease.

Different endophyte communities colonize buds of sprouts compared with mature trees of mountain birch recovered from moth herbivory.

Plant meristems were previously thought to be sterile. Today, meristem-associated shoot endophytes are mainly reported as contaminants from plant tissue cultures, the number of observed species being very low. However, the few strains characterized have the capacity for infecting host cells and affecting plant growth and development. Here we studied the communities of endophytic bacteria in the buds of mountain birch (Betula pubescens ssp. czerepanovii (N. I. Orlova) Hämet-Ahti) exposed to winter moth (Operophtera brumata L.) herbivory, to identify differences between sprouts and branches of mature birch trees. Mountain birch of the high subarctic is cyclically exposed to winter moth and produces sprouts to generate new trees as a survival mechanism. The majority (54%) of operational taxonomic units belonged to Xanthomonadaceae and Pseudomonales of Proteobacteria. Most of the observed species were classified as Xanthomonas (28%). Sprout buds had the highest diversity, containing approximately three times more species, and significantly more (43%) Pseudomonas species than the mature trees (14%). Our results demonstrate that endophytic communities of buds are richer than previously thought. We suggest that the meristem-associated endophytes should be studied further for a possible role in sprouting and aiding regeneration of trees.