MRAP2 inhibits ß-arrestin recruitment to the ghrelin receptor by preventing GHSR1a phosphorylation.

The melanocortin receptor accessory protein 2 (MRAP2) is essential for several physiological functions of the ghrelin receptor growth hormone secretagogue receptor 1a (GHSR1a), including increasing appetite and suppressing insulin secretion. In the absence of MRAP2, GHSR1a displays high constitutive activity and a weak G-protein-mediated response to ghrelin and readily recruits ß-arrestin. In the presence of MRAP2, however, G-protein-mediated signaling via GHSR1a is strongly dependent on ghrelin stimulation and the recruitment of ß-arrestin is significantly diminished. To better understand how MRAP2 modifies GHSR1a signaling, here we investigated the role of several phosphorylation sites within the C-terminal tail and third intracellular loop of GHSR1a, as well as the mechanism behind MRAP2-mediated inhibition of ß-arrestin recruitment. We show that Ser252 and Thr261 in the third intracellular loop of GHSR1a contribute to ß-arrestin recruitment, whereas the C-terminal region is not essential for ß-arrestin interaction. Additionally, we found that MRAP2 inhibits GHSR1a phosphorylation by blocking the interaction of GRK2 and PKC with the receptor. Taken together, these data suggest that MRAP2 alters GHSR1a signaling by directly impacting the phosphorylation state of the receptor and that the C-terminal tail of GHSR1a prevents rather than contribute to ß-arrestin recruitment.

The Insulinostatic Effect of Ghrelin Requires MRAP2 Expression in δ Cells.

Ghrelin regulates both energy intake and glucose homeostasis. In the endocrine pancreas, ghrelin inhibits insulin release to prevent hypoglycemia during fasting. The mechanism through which this is accomplished is unclear, but recent studies suggest that ghrelin acts on δ cells to stimulate somatostatin release, which in turn inhibits insulin release from ß cells. Recently, the Melanocortin Receptor Accessory Protein 2 (MRAP2) was identified as an essential partner of the ghrelin receptor (GHSR1a) in mediating the central orexigenic action of ghrelin. In this study we show that MRAP2 is expressed in islet δ cells and is required for ghrelin to elicit a calcium response in those cells. Additionally, we show that both global and δ cell targeted deletion of MRAP2 abrogates the insulinostatic effect of ghrelin. Together, these findings establish that ghrelin signaling within δ cells is essential for the inhibition of insulin release and identify MRAP2 as a regulator of insulin secretion.

The GPCR accessory protein MRAP2 regulates both biased signaling and constitutive activity of the ghrelin receptor GHSR1a.

Ghrelin is a hormone secreted by the stomach during fasting periods and acts through its receptor, the growth hormone secretagogue 1a (GHSR1a), to promote food intake and prevent hypoglycemia. As such, GHSR1a is an important regulator of energy and glucose homeostasis and a target for the treatment of obesity. Here, we showed that the accessory protein MRAP2 altered GHSR1a signaling by inhibiting its constitutive activity, as well as by enhancing its G protein-dependent signaling and blocking the recruitment and signaling of ß-arrestin in response to ghrelin. In addition, the effects of MRAP2 on the Gαq and ß-arrestin pathways were independent and involved distinct regions of MRAP2. These findings may have implications for the regulation of ghrelin function in vivo and the role of MRAP2 in energy homeostasis. They also show that accessory proteins can bias signaling downstream of GPCRs in response to their endogenous agonist.

MRAP2 regulates ghrelin receptor signaling and hunger sensing.

Ghrelin is the only known circulating orexigenic hormone. It is primarily secreted by the stomach and acts at its receptor, the growth hormone secretagogue receptor 1a (GHSR1a), in the hypothalamus to signal hunger and promote food intake. The melanocortin receptor accessory protein 2 (MRAP2) was previously shown to regulate energy homeostasis through the modulation of the activity of the melanocortin-4 receptor and prokineticin receptors. In this study we identify MRAP2 as a partner of ghrelin-GHSR1a signaling. We show that MRAP2 interacts with GHSR1a and potentiates ghrelin-stimulated signaling both in vitro and in vivo. We demonstrate that in the absence of MRAP2, fasting fails to activate agouti-related protein neurons. In addition, we show that the orexigenic effect of ghrelin is lost in mice lacking MRAP2. Our results suggest that MRAP2 is an important modulator of the energy homeostasis machinery that operates through the regulation of multiple GPCRs throughout the hypothalamus.Melanocortin receptor accessory protein 2 (MRAP2) is an adaptor protein that contributes to melanocortin-4 receptor and prokineticin receptor 1 signalling. Here the authors show that MRAP2 also regulates ghrelin receptor signalling in the hypothalamus and starvation sensing in mice.

Regions of MRAP2 required for the inhibition of orexin and prokineticin receptor signaling.

The Melanocortin Receptor Accessory Protein 2 (MRAP2) regulates the activity of several GPCRs involved in the control of food intake and energy expenditure. While MRAP2 was originally thought to exclusively interact with melanocortin receptors we have recently shown that it interacts with and inhibits the trafficking and signaling of the prokineticin receptor 1 (PKR1). In this study we demonstrate a new role of MRAP2 in the regulation of the orexin receptor 1 (OX1R) and identify the specific regions of MRAP2 required for the regulation of OX1R and PKR1. Importantly, like MC4R and PKRs, OX1R is predominately expressed in the brain where it regulates food intake. By demonstrating that MRAP2 modulates the activity of OX1R we further establish the critical role of MRAP2 in the control of energy homeostasis.

Melanocortin Receptor Accessory Proteins (MRAPs): Functions in the melanocortin system and beyond.

G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) are regulated by numerous proteins including kinases, G-proteins, ß-arrestins and accessory proteins. Several families of GPCR accessory proteins like Receptor Activity Modifying Proteins, Receptor Transporting Proteins and Melanocortin Receptor Accessory Proteins (MRAPs) have been identified as regulator of receptor trafficking, signaling and ligand specificity. The MRAP family contains two members, MRAP1 and MRAP2, responsible for the formation of a functional ACTH receptor and for the regulation of energy homeostasis respectively. Like all known GPCR accessory proteins, MRAPs are single transmembrane proteins, however, they form a unique structure since they assemble as an anti-parallel homodimer. Moreover, the accepted idea that MRAPs are specific regulators of melanocortin receptors was recently challenged by the discovery that MRAP2 inhibits the activity of prokineticin receptors. Recent studies are starting to explain the role of the unusual structure of MRAPs and to illustrate the importance of MRAP2 for the maintenance of both energy and glucose homeostasis. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Melanocortin Receptors - edited by Ya-Xiong Tao.

A proposed interaction mechanism between elastin-derived peptides and the elastin/laminin receptor-binding domain.

Elastin-derived peptides (EDPs) have been intensively studied in view of their widely diverse biological activities. These are triggered both in normal and tumor cells, through peptide anchoring at the surface of the elastin-binding protein (EBP), a subunit of the elastin/laminin receptor. In this study, we investigated both the structure of the Sgal peptide, representing the elastin-binding domain of EBP, and its interaction with EDPs, through a combination of experimental and theoretical methods. Although the conformation of the Sgal peptide is highly flexible, we detected a type I beta-turn at the QDEA sequence. This represents the best structured motif in the entire Sgal peptide, which might therefore contribute to its binding activity. We further propose a novel three-dimensional model for the interaction between the Sgal peptide and EDPs; folding of the EDPs at the GXXP motif, in a conformation close to a type VIII beta-turn, provides the efficient contact of the protein with the Q residue of the Sgal peptide. This residue is exposed to the peptide surface, because of the beta-turn structure of the QDEA residues in the peptide sequence. We further show that this complex is stabilized by three hydrogen bonds involving EDPs backbone atoms.

Conformation study of HA(306-318) antigenic peptide of the haemagglutinin influenza virus protein.

Several HLA-DR alleles present the immunodominant HA(306-318) peptide of haemagglutinin of the influenza virus to T cells. NMR data of the peptide in various water solutions exclude any alpha-helix or turn conformations. Circular dichroism and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopies indicate an estimated beta-extended structure in water of 31% and 28%, respectively, with spectra shape similar to the ones observed for beta-sheet containing proteins. The H/D amide exchange suggests a stable length-dependent interchain hydrogen-bonding. The partially beta-extended conformation of HA(306-318) in solution might be close to the one found in HA(306-318)-HLA-DR1 complex. These results suggest different interconverting extended conformations of HA(306-318), depending on the microenvironment of the solution medium. This flexibility emphasizes the ability of some peptides to fit more easily the binding site of several HLA-DR molecules. Similar results were obtained on the HIV P25(263-277) peptide which has been previously shown to be a good DR1 binder. From a vibrational point of view, infrared Amide I frequencies of secondary structures in peptides were ascertained. As previously demonstrated for proteins in solution, Fourier transform infrared and circular dichroism spectroscopies appear to be valuable tools for conformational properties of peptides. Their use may contribute to the detection of peptide conformation-binding relationship which has to be further tested by biochemical and biological studies.

[A turning point in the knowledge of the structure-function-activity relations of elastin]. / Un tournant essentiel dans la connaissance des relations structure--fonction--activité de l'élastine.

In this review are presented the last new results of our research group dealing with the molecular structures (atomic level) of tropoelastin, elastin and elastin derived peptides studied by using essentially methods of bioinformatics (theoretical predictions and molecular modelling) linked to experimental circular dichroism spectroscopic studies. We already had characterized both the local secondary structure and some parts of the tertiary structure of the tropoelastin and elastin molecules (human, bovine...), by using either theoretical predictions (local secondary structure, linear epitopes...) and/or experimental data (optical spectroscopic methods: Raman scattering, infrared absorption, circular dichroism). Except the cross-linking regions which are in helical conformations, the whole tropoelastin structure displays a lot of beta-reverse turns which usually belong to irregular structures in proteins. These turns play a key role in other regularly structures orientation (alpha-helix, beta-strand), thus they are very important in the native protein 3D architecture. It is particularly true for human tropoelastin, because its sequence is rich in glycines and prolines, and these residues are frequently met in beta-turns (a beta-turn is made of four consecutive residues which are stabilized by an hydrogen bond). Several types of beta-turns can be defined with the dihedral angles values phi and psi of the two central residues. Thus, by using a very recent updated set of propensities for the amino acid residues to belong to given types of reverse beta-turns (extracted from a reference set of known 3-D structures of globular proteins), we have determined, (by using our home made software COUDES), for all possible tetrapeptides of the human tropoelastin sequence, the distribution and the characterization of the possible type of turns. Thus, it is shown that the locations and/or the types of these reverse beta-turns reveal a regularity and are not all random. This confirms our hypothesis that intra-molecular elasticity of tropoelastin could be explained by the possibility of transitions between conformations involving short beta-strands and beta-turns. This result is of great interest in the construction (by using molecular biology) of elastic biomaterials derived from the elastin sequence (particularly, the elastin derived peptides corresponding to the sequence exon 21--(exon 24--exon 24...). Our study permit also to predict the conformations of specific elastin derived peptides which could have interesting biological activity. Peptides resulting from the degradation of elastin, the insoluble polymer of tropoelastin and responsible for the elasticity of vertebrate tissues, can induce biological effects and notably the regulation of matrix metalloproteinases (MMP-s) activity. Recently, it was proposed that some elastin derived hexapeptides resulting from circular permutations of VGVAPG (a three fold repetition sequence in exon 24 of human tropoelastin) possess MMP-1 production and activation regulation properties. This effect depends on the presence of the tropoelastin specific membraneous receptor 67 KDa EBP (Elastin Binding Protein). Our results obtained by using both circular dichroism spectroscopy and linear predictions confirmed the hypothesis of a structure dependent mechanism with a possibly occurring type VIII beta-turn on the first four residues of the GXXPG sequence consensus which is only present among all active peptides. Thus, we have performed extensive molecular dynamics studies, in both implicit and explicit solvent, on these active and inactive elastin derived hexapeptides. Using our own analysis method of pattern recognition of the types of the beta-reverse-turns followed during the molecular dynamics trajectory, we found that active and inactive peptides effectively form two well distinct conformational groups in which active peptides preferentially adopt conformation close to type VIII GXXP (beta-reverse-turn. The structural role of the C terminal G residue could also be explained. Additional molecular simulations on (VGVAPG)2 and (VGVAPG)3 show the formation of two or three GXXP tetrapeptides adopting a structure close to type VIII beta-reverse-turn, suggesting a local conformational preference for this motif. This observation of a specific structural single and/or repeated motif is in agreement with the circular dichroism spectra of the involved (VGVAPG)1, (VGVAPG)2 and (VGVAPG)3 peptides and then it can be proposed that their biological activities have to be linear. The final aim of this type of work is to understand more about the sequence/structure/function/activity relationships of those structured peptides in order to propose specific sequences (corresponding to specific structures) for best biological activity results.

Conformational dependence of collagenase (matrix metalloproteinase-1) up-regulation by elastin peptides in cultured fibroblasts.

We have established that treatment of cultured human skin fibroblasts with tropoelastin or with heterogenic peptides, obtained after organo-alkaline or leukocyte elastase hydrolysis of insoluble elastin, induces a high expression of pro-collagenase-1 (pro-matrix metalloproteinase-1 (pro-MMP-1)). The identical effect was achieved after stimulation with a VGVAPG synthetic peptide, reflecting the elastin-derived domain known to bind to the 67-kDa elastin-binding protein. This clearly indicated involvement of this receptor in the described phenomenon. This notion was further reinforced by the fact that elastin peptides-dependent MMP-1 up-regulation has not been demonstrated in cultures preincubated with 1 mm lactose, which causes shedding of the elastin-binding protein and with pertussis toxin, which blocks the elastin-binding protein-dependent signaling pathway involving G protein, phospholipase C, and protein kinase C. Moreover, we demonstrated that diverse peptides maintaining GXXPG sequences can also induce similar cellular effects as a "principal" VGVAPG ligand of the elastin receptor. Results of our biophysical studies suggest that this peculiar consensus sequence stabilizes a type VIII beta-turn in several similar, but not identical, peptides that maintain a sufficient conformation to be recognized by the elastin receptor. We have also established that GXXPG elastin-derived peptides, in addition to pro-MMP-1, cause up-regulation of pro-matrix metalloproteinase-3 (pro-stromelysin 1). Furthermore, we found that the presence of plasmin in the culture medium activated these MMP proenzymes, leading to a consequent degradation of collagen substrate. Our results may be, therefore, relevant to pathobiology of inflammation, in which elastin-derived peptides bearing the GXXPG conformation (created after leukocyte-dependent proteolysis) bind to the elastin receptor of local fibroblasts and trigger signals leading to expression and activation of MMP-1 and MMP-3, which in turn exacerbate local connective tissue damage.

Molecular determinants of site-specific inhibition of human DNA topoisomerase I by fagaronine and ethoxidine. Relation to DNA binding.

DNA topoisomerase (top) I inhibition activity of the natural alkaloid fagaronine (NSC157995) and its new synthetic derivative ethoxidine (12-ethoxy-benzo[c]phenanthridine) has been correlated with their molecular interactions and sequence specificity within the DNA complexes. Flow linear dichroism shows that ethoxidine exhibits the same inhibition of DNA relaxation as fagaronine at the 10-fold lower concentration. The patterns of DNA cleavage by top I show linear enhancement of CPT-dependent sites at the 0.016-50 microM concentrations of fagaronine, whereas ethoxidine suppress both top I-specific and CPT-dependent sites. Suppression of top I-mediated cleavage by ethoxidine is found to be specific for the sites, including strand cut between A and T. Fagaronine and ethoxidine are DNA major groove intercalators. Ethoxidine intercalates DNA in A-T sequences and its 12-ethoxy-moiety (absent in fagaronine) extends into the DNA minor groove. These findings may explain specificity of suppression by ethoxidine of the strong top I cleavage sites with the A(+1), T(-1) immediately adjacent to the strand cut. Fagaronine does not show any sequence specificity of DNA intercalation, but its highly electronegative oxygen of hydroxy group (absent in ethoxidine) is shown to be an acceptor of the hydrogen bond with the NH(2) group of G base of DNA. Ability of fagaronine to stabilize top I-mediated ternary complex is proposed to be determined by interaction of its hydroxy group with the guanine at position (+1) of the DNA cleavage site and of quaternary nitrogen interaction with top I. The model proposed provides a guidance for screening new top I-targeted drugs in terms of identification of molecular determinants responsible for their top I inhibition effects.

The structures of elastins and their function.

Elastin structures and their significance towards elastic recoil properties have been reviewed. Starting from the initial hypothesis that elastin conformation is conditioned by that of its monomer, the structure of tropoelastin was first described using theoretical and experimental methods and a beta class folding type was evidenced for the isolated unbound tropoelastin molecules. The structure of elastin in the solid state was consistent with that of its monomer and consequently, fibrous elastin appeared constituted of globular tropoelastin molecules. Finally, theoretical and experimental considerations have led us to the conclusion that the functional form of the elastomer, water swollen elastin, could be a triphasic system comprising the protein chains, hydration water and solvent water. Following this description, the dynamic structural equilibria occurring within elastin hydrophobic domains and the plasticizing effect of water could explain elastin elasticity, in keeping with a classical entropic mechanism.

Predictive estimation of protein linear epitopes by using the program PEOPLE.

A single small segment (sequence recognition) or domain (conformation recognition) of a protein could act as an antigen (antigenic determinant) vs an antibody. Epitopes of the first kind being a continuous segment along the sequence (linear), generally bent with a typical non-ordered structure (turns and/or loops), can be predicted from the only knowledge of the primary structure. After reviewing the different algorithms, we present PEOPLE (Predictive Estimation Of Protein Linear Epitopes) which uses combined prediction methods, taking into account the basic fundamental properties corresponding to what should be an ideal epitope: bent (secondary structure mainly beta-turns), surface accessible, hydrophilic and mobile and/or flexible. Four classes of basic biophysical parameters are considered for the determination of an antigenic index AG - secondary structure; hydrophilicity; surface accessibility; flexibility. The AG index is finally defined as a linear combination of the four class profiles. Typical applications are presented.

Expression, purification and DNA-cleavage activity of recombinant 68-kDa human topoisomerase I-target for antitumor drugs.

The gene encoding human DNA topoisomerase (topo) I, the target of numerous anticancer drugs, has been subcloned into bacterial, yeast and baculovirus-based expression systems in attempts to overexpress the enzyme for extensive structural and functional characterisation. Expression in E.coli produced a protein which was not suitable for structural studies. Expression in the yeast system was more successful enabling the enzyme to be purified and characterised. However, the resulting yield was modest for our requirements and the full-length protein was found to be susceptible to proteolysis when expressed in this system. As it is known that topo I from human placental tissue contains significant quantities of a 68kDa proteolytic fragment which retains both DNA relaxation and cleavage activity, we have isolated this fragment and shown by N-terminal sequence analysis that it starts at Lysine-191. This information was used to construct vectors which direct the overexpression of this fragment in baculovirus infected insect cells. The recombinant protein has been purified to homogeneity in a yield of 5-10mg/l of cell culture. The fragment is stable and retains all of the DNA driving activities of the intact enzyme. We have characterised the interactions of the topo I fragment with synthetic DNA substrates and identified oligonucleotides and conditions that allow covalent complexes between 68kDa topo I and DNA to be formed with high efficiency and in large quantity. A flow linear dichroism technique has been further developed and applied for real-time monitoring of supercoiled (sc) DNA relaxation by the enzyme and for comparative analysis of inhibition of 68kDa topo I by camptothecin (CPT).

Raman and CD spectroscopy of recombinant 68-kDa DNA human topoisomerase I and its complex with suicide DNA-substrate.

N-terminally truncated recombinant 68-kDa human topoisomerase (topo) I exhibits the same DNA-driving activities as the wild-type protein. In the present study, Raman and circular dichroism techniques were employed for detailed structural characterization of the 68-kDa human topo I and its transformations induced by the suicide sequence-specific oligonucleotide (solig) binding and cleavage. Spectroscopic data combined with statistical prediction techniques were employed to construct a model of the secondary structure distribution along the primary protein structure in solution. The 68-kDa topo I was found to consist of ca. 59% alpha-helix, 24% beta-strand and/or sheets, and 17% other structures. A secondary structure transition of the 68-kDa topo I was found to accompany solig binding and cleavage. Nearly 15% of the alpha-helix of 68-kDa topo I is transferred within the other structures when in the complex with its DNA substrate. Raman spectroscopy analysis also shows redistribution of the structural rotamers of the 68-kDa topo I disulfide bonds and significant changes in the H-bonding of the Tyr residues and in the microenvironment/conformation of the Trp side chains. No structural modifications of the DNA substrate were detected by spectroscopic techniques. The data presented provide the first direct experimental evidence of the human topo I conformational transition after the cleavage step in the reaction of binding and cleavage of DNA substrate by the enzyme. This evidence supports the model of the enzyme function requiring the protein conformational transition. The most probable location of the enzyme transformations was the core and the C-terminal conservative 68-kDa topo I structural domains. By contrast, the linker domain was found to have an extremely low potential for solig-induced structural transformations. The pattern of redistribution of protein secondary structures induced by solig binding and covalent suicide complex formation supports the model of an intramolecular bipartite mode of topo I/DNA interaction in the substrate binding and cleavage reaction.

Spectroscopic and biochemical characterisation of self-aggregates formed by antitumor drugs of the camptothecin family: their possible role in the unique mode of drug action.

We describe the effect strongly influencing the biological activity of some camptothecin (CPT) drugs, the inhibitors of DNA topoisomerase I (topo I), namely, the formation of J-type aggregates in an aqueous buffer solution. These aggregates were built up under certain dilution conditions of the stock DMSO solutions of 20-S-camptothecin (20(S)CPT), 10,11-methylenedioxy-CPT (10,11-CPT) and 7-ethyl-10-hydroxy-CPT (SN38). The aggregates were found to be stereospecific, not being detectable for the 20(R)-stereoisomer of CPT. They were formed by the stacking interaction between quinoline rings of CPT chromophores with the inverse position of the nitrogen atoms. The aggregates were stable at acidic and neutral pHs, but dissociated at basic pHs. Self-aggregation prevented hydrolysis of the lactone ring at neutral pHs, thus preserving the drugs in a biologically active form. Addition of BSA did not induce either disaggregation or hydrolysis of the lactone ring, whereas the monomeric form of the drugs was shown to undergo rapid conversion to an inactive carboxylate form in the presence of human serum albumin [5]. The drugs did not form the aggregates in the presence of topo I. Moreover, rapid dissociation of the aggregates was observed if a self-aggregated drug solution was added to topo I alone or to the DNA-topo I cleavage assay. Neither DNA alone nor oligonucleotides derived from the sequences of the CPT-enhanced or topo I-induced cleavage sites in SV40 plasmid DNA induces changes in the aggregation state of the drugs. These observations are indicative of interaction between the aggregates and topo I. The aggregates were found to penetrate within the cells with much higher efficiency than a monomeric form of the drugs. Cellular uptake of aggregated and nonaggregated species correlated well with cytotoxic effects produced by the drug. In this manner, CPT's self-aggregation should be regarded as a favourable phenomenon producing species with a more stable biologically active structure of the lactone ring and exhibiting enhanced cellular uptake levels relative to the monomeric forms of medications.

Cloning and expression of an iron-containing superoxide dismutase in the parasitic protist, Trichomonas vaginalis.

A superoxide dismutase (SOD) gene of the parasitic protist Trichomonas vaginalis was cloned, sequenced, expressed in Escherichia coli, and its gene product characterized. It is an iron-containing dimeric protein with a monomeric mass of 22,067 Da. Southern blots analyses suggested the presence of seven iron-containing (FeSOD) gene copies. Hydrophobic cluster analysis revealed some peculiarities in the 2D structure of the FeSOD from T. vaginalis and a strong structural conservation between prokaryotic and eukaryotic FeSODs. Phylogenetic reconstruction of the SOD sequences confirmed the dichotomy between FeSODs and manganese-containing SODs. FeSODs of protists appeared to group together with homologous proteobacterial enzymes suggesting a possible origin of eukaryotic FeSODs through an endosymbiotic event.

The secondary structure and architecture of human elastin.

The presented work constitutes the first structural characterization of both insoluble human elastin and its solubilized form, kappa-elastin. Structural data were reached following the use of Fourier transform infrared, near infrared Fourier transform Raman and circular dichroism optical spectroscopic methods and their quantitative analysis permitted us to estimate approximately 10% alpha-helices, approximately 35% beta-strands and approximately 55% undefined conformations in the global secondary structure of insoluble human elastin in the solid state. Following the use of the LINK method, the probable local distribution of the secondary-structure elements along the sequence was determined and compared to that obtained for bovine elastin, the historical standard of elastin. This comparison led us to propose a globular architecture for the human elastomer and permitted us to delineate some elements of its structure-elasticity relationship.

Camptothecin-binding site in human serum albumin and protein transformations induced by drug binding.

Circular dichroism (CD) and Raman spectroscopy were employed in order to locate a camptothecin (CPT)-binding site within human serum albumin (HSA) and to identify protein structural transformations induced by CPT binding. A competitive binding of CPT and 3'-azido-3'-deoxythymidine (a ligand occupying IIIA structural sub-domain of the protein) to HSA does not show any competition and demonstrates that the ligands are located in the different binding sites, whereas a HSA-bound CPT may be replaced by warfarin, occupying IIA structural sub-domain of the protein. Raman and CD spectra of HSA and HSA/CPT complexes show that the CPT-binding does not induce changes of the global protein secondary structure. On the other hand, Raman spectra reveal pronounced CPT-induced local structural modifications of the HSA molecule, involving changes in configuration of the two disulfide bonds and transfer of a single Trp-residue to hydrophilic environment. These data suggest that CPT is bound in the region of interdomain connections within the IIA structural domain of HSA and it induces relative movement of the protein structural domains.