Massive pulmonary embolism in a young boy with T-cell leukaemia. Successful thrombolytic therapy by recombinant tissue plasminogen activator (rtPA).

Acute pulmonary embolism (PE) is a serious complication in association with malignant diseases. We describe the successful treatment of PE applying a systemic thrombolytic therapy in a 4-year-old boy with acute lymphoblastic leukaemia. The thrombolytic therapy with recombinant tissue plasminogen activator (rtPA) 0.1 mg/kg bodyweight per hour for six hours was continued for six days without important side effects. In particular no bleeding complications were observed. Computed tomography with contrast revealed a remarkable regression of the central PE. Without further delays the chemotherapy was resumed.

SIRT6 in DNA repair, metabolism and ageing.

Ageing, or increased mortality with time, coupled with physiologic decline, is a nearly universal yet poorly understood biological phenomenon. Studies in model organisms suggest that two conserved pathways modulate longevity: DNA damage repair and Insulin/Igf1-like signalling. In addition, homologs of yeast Sir2--the sirtuins--regulate lifespan in diverse organisms. Here, we focus on one particular sirtuin, SIRT6. Mice lacking SIRT6 develop a degenerative disorder that in some respects mimics models of accelerated ageing [Cell (2006) 124:315]. We discuss how sirtuins in general and SIRT6 specifically relate to other evolutionarily conserved pathways affecting ageing, and how SIRT6 might function to ensure organismal homeostasis and normal lifespan.

Integrative analysis reveals 53BP1 copy loss and decreased expression in a subset of human diffuse large B-cell lymphomas.

p53-Binding protein 1 (53BP1) encodes a critical checkpoint protein that localizes to sites of DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) and participates in DSB repair. Mice that are 53bp1 deficient or hemizygous have an increased incidence of lymphoid malignancies. However, 53BP1 abnormalities in primary human tumors have not been described. By combining high-density single nucleotide polymorphism (HD SNP) array data and gene expression profiles, we found 9 of 63 newly diagnosed human diffuse large B-cell lymphomas (DLBCLs) with single copy loss of the chromosome 15q15 region including the 53BP1 locus; these nine tumors also had significantly lower levels of 53BP1 transcripts. 53BP1 single copy loss found with the HD SNP array platform was subsequently confirmed by fluorescence in situ hybridization. These studies highlight the role of 53BP1 copy loss in primary human DLBCLs and the value of integrative analyses in detecting this genetic lesion in human tumors.

N-WASP deficiency reveals distinct pathways for cell surface projections and microbial actin-based motility.

The Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome protein (WASP) family of molecules integrates upstream signalling events with changes in the actin cytoskeleton. N-WASP has been implicated both in the formation of cell-surface projections (filopodia) required for cell movement and in the actin-based motility of intracellular pathogens. To examine N-WASP function we have used homologous recombination to inactivate the gene encoding murine N-WASP. Whereas N-WASP-deficient embryos survive beyond gastrulation and initiate organogenesis, they have marked developmental delay and die before embryonic day 12. N-WASP is not required for the actin-based movement of the intracellular pathogen Listeria but is absolutely required for the motility of Shigella and vaccinia virus. Despite these distinct defects in bacterial and viral motility, N-WASP-deficient fibroblasts spread by using lamellipodia and can protrude filopodia. These results imply a crucial and non-redundant role for N-WASP in murine embryogenesis and in the actin-based motility of certain pathogens but not in the general formation of actin-containing structures.

TRAF1 is a negative regulator of TNF signaling. enhanced TNF signaling in TRAF1-deficient mice.

TNF receptor-associated factor 1 (TRAF1) is a unique TRAF protein because it lacks a RING finger domain and is predominantly expressed in activated lymphocytes. To elucidate the function of TRAF1, we generated TRAF1-deficient mice. TRAF1(-/-) mice are viable and have normal lymphocyte development. TRAF1(-/-) T cells exhibit stronger than wild-type (WT) T cell proliferation to anti-CD3 mAb, which persisted in the presence of IL-2 or anti-CD28 antibodies. Activated TRAF1(-/-) T cells, but not TRAF1(+/+) T cells, responded to TNF by proliferation and activation of the NF-kappa B and AP-1 signaling pathways. This TNF effect was mediated by TNFR2 (p75) but not by TNFR1 (p55). Furthermore, skin from TRAF1(-/-) mice was hypersensitive to TNF-induced necrosis. These findings suggest that TRAF1 is a negative regulator of TNF signaling.

DNA double strand break repair and chromosomal translocation: lessons from animal models.

The maintenance of genomic stability is one of the most important defenses against neoplastic transformation. This objective must be accomplished despite a constant barrage of spontaneous DNA double strand breaks. These dangerous lesions are corrected by two primary pathways of double strand break repair; non homologous end joining and homologous recombination. Recent studies employing mouse models have shown that absence of either pathway leads to genomic instability, including potentially oncogenic translocations. Because translocations involve the union of different chromosomes, cellular machinery must exist that creates these structures in the context of unrepaired double strand breaks. Evidence is mounting that the pathways of double strand break repair that are so important for survival may themselves be the culprits that generate potentially fatal translocations. Evidence and models for the dual roles of double strand break repair in both preventing, and generating, oncogenic karyotypic changes are discussed.

Plasma cell differentiation requires the transcription factor XBP-1.

Considerable progress has been made in identifying the transcription factors involved in the early specification of the B-lymphocyte lineage. However, little is known about factors that control the transition of mature activated B cells to antibody-secreting plasma cells. Here we report that the transcription factor XBP-1 is required for the generation of plasma cells. XBP-1 transcripts were rapidly upregulated in vitro by stimuli that induce plasma-cell differentiation, and were found at high levels in plasma cells from rheumatoid synovium. When introduced into B-lineage cells, XBP-1 initiated plasma-cell differentiation. Mouse lymphoid chimaeras deficient in XBP-1 possessed normal numbers of activated B lymphocytes that proliferated, secreted cytokines and formed normal germinal centres. However, they secreted very little immunoglobulin of any isotype and failed to control infection with the B-cell-dependent polyoma virus, because plasma cells were markedly absent. XBP-1 is the only transcription factor known to be selectively and specifically required for the terminal differentiation of B lymphocytes to plasma cells.

First report on the uptake of automobile catalyst emitted palladium by European eels (Anguilla anguilla) following experimental exposure to road dust.

Following the introduction of automobile catalysts in the middle of the 1980s in Germany there is an increasing emission of the platinum-group-metals platinum, palladium (Pd) and rhodium. Still, it remains unclear if these metals are bioavailable for aquatic animals and to which extent they become accumulated by the aquatic biosphere. Because of analytical problems in detecting Pd in small biological samples the present investigation concentrates on the bioavailability of this metal. To answer the question of a Pd uptake by aquatic organisms experimental studies were conducted with European eels maintained in water containing road dust at a concentration of 10 kg/100 l. Following an exposure period of four weeks, samples of liver and kidney were analysed by total-reflection X-ray fluorescence analysis after co-precipitation of Pd with mercury. These experiments revealed an uptake of traffic related Pd by European eels which showed a mean liver Pd concentration of 0.18 +/- 0.05 ng/g (wet wt.), whereas the Pd concentration in the kidney ranged below the detection limit. Thus, in this study we can demonstrate for the first time that automobile catalyst emitted Pd is bioavailable for aquatic animals.

Platinum and rhodium concentrations in airborne particulate matter in Germany from 1988 to 1998.

Increases in platinum group element (PGE) concentrations in ambient air and dust since the introduction of automotive catalytic converters in 1988 is a cause of concern. Until now, data derived from engine-test bench experiments have provided the basis for the assessment of human health risks associated with PGE exposure. Such experiments have provided valuable information regarding emission data that has been used to estimate ambient exposure concentrations. However, these data are not necessarily representative of typical environmental PGE exposure levels and conditions. Data on measured environmental concentrations is needed to provide a more adequate basis for the assessment of exposure and related risks. Twenty air and airborne-dust samples were provided by the Umweltbundesamt (Federal Environmental Agency, Germany) in the years 1988, 1989, 1992, 1997, and 1998. The samples were collected in Frankfurt/Main and the adjacent city of Offenbach. For this, 11 to 80 m3 of air were filtered over a 24-72 h period using a vacuum. Glass-fiber filters were used to collect samples. Sample platinum and rhodium concentrations were determined using adsorptive voltammetry. Although the number of samples collected in different years is limited, the results indicate a trend toward continuous increases in ambient concentrations of these metals between 1988 and 1998. Specifically, there were 46- and 27-fold increases in Pt and Rh concentrations, respectively. Despite these observed increases, the Pt concentrations measured (i.e., 147 pg/m3 on average, with a maximum of 246 pg/m3 in 1998) fell far below 15,000 pg/m3, which has been suggested as a guidance value (i.e., exposure at this level would be expected to be without appreciable health risk). The results of a particle-size distribution analysis of one sample (8-step impactor) that was collected 150 m away from a street show that approximately 75% of Pt and 95% of Rh occurs in association with large particulate matter of > 2 microns, with concentrations reaching a maximum in particles of 4.7 to 5.8 microns. The remaining 25% of Pt and 5% of Rh is present in fine particulate matter of < 2 microns. An approximate 10% of Pt and < 38% of Rh in airborne particles was found to be soluble in 0.1 molar HCl. Further, the results indicate that most of the emitted PGE particles from automotive catalytic converters, particularly those bound to fine particulate matter, are capable of being airborne. As a result, PGEs are not only present in areas close to emissions (e.g., roads), but can be transported over longer distances.

Adsorptive voltametry to determine platinum levels in plasma from testicular cancer patients treated with cisplatin.

Patients cured of metastatic testicular cancer with cisplatin chemotherapy may suffer late adverse effects even after 20 years. The cause of these late adverse effects has not been elucidated yet. One cause might be prolonged tissue retention of platinum in these patients. Therefore, an extremely sensitive method for measuring platinum in plasma was used to investigate whether platinum is still detectable in plasma 10 to 20 years after cisplatin chemotherapy. High-pressure decomposition of plasma is followed by adsorptive voltametric determination of platinum, with a limit of quantification of 6 pg/g plasma. This procedure appeared suitable for the measurement of platinum in 44 former patients with platinum levels ranging from 22 to 140 pg/g plasma. This method is approximately 6000 times more sensitive than the standard flameless atomic absorption spectrophotometry (AAS) method. The platinum levels of these 44 patients were significantly elevated when compared with 20 control patients who were cured of testicular cancer but did not receive cisplatin chemotherapy (p < 0.001). There was a significant correlation between plasma platinum concentrations and follow-up time after cisplatin administration (r = -0.658, p < 0.001). This study shows that patients with testicular cancer who were treated with cisplatin can retain platinum in their body for at least 20 years. More data are needed to investigate whether there is a relation between the prolonged retention of platinum and long-term toxicity.

Genetic interactions between ATM and the nonhomologous end-joining factors in genomic stability and development.

DNA ligase IV (Lig4) and the DNA-dependent protein kinase (DNA-PK) function in nonhomologous end joining (NHEJ). However, although Lig4 deficiency causes late embryonic lethality, deficiency in DNA-PK subunits (Ku70, Ku80, and DNA-PKcs) does not. Here we demonstrate that, similar to p53 deficiency, ataxia-telangiectasia-mutated (ATM) gene deficiency rescues the embryonic lethality and neuronal apoptosis, but not impaired lymphocyte development, associated with Lig4 deficiency. However, in contrast to p53 deficiency, ATM deficiency enhances deleterious effects of Lig4 deficiency on growth potential of embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) and genomic instability in both MEFs and cultured progenitor lymphocytes, demonstrating significant differences in the interplay of p53 vs. ATM with respect to NHEJ. Finally, in dramatic contrast to effects on Lig4 deficiency, ATM deficiency causes early embryonic lethality in Ku- or DNA-PKcs-deficient mice, providing evidence for an NHEJ-independent role for the DNA-PK holoenzyme.

Analysis of C-MYC function in normal cells via conditional gene-targeted mutation.

Germline inactivation of c-myc in mice causes embryonic lethality. Therefore, we developed a LoxP/Cre-based conditional mutation approach to test the role of c-myc in mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) and mature B lymphocytes. Cre expression resulted in reduced proliferation of wild-type MEFs, but c-Myc-deficient MEFs showed a further reduction. In contrast to fibroblasts, Cre expression had no apparent affect on wild-type B cell proliferation. Deletion of both c-Myc genes in B cells led to severely impaired proliferation in response to anti-CD40 plus IL-4. However, treated cells did upregulate several early activation markers but not CD95 or CD95 ligand. We discuss these findings with respect to potential c-Myc functions in proliferation and apoptosis and also discuss potential limitations in the Cre-mediated gene inactivation approach.

Effect of extraction pH on metal speciation in plant root extracts.

The species patterns of nutrient and trace metals (K, Ca, Mg, Mn, Fe, Zn) obtained by extraction of plant roots have been determined as a function of extraction pH in the range 4-9. The extractable metal concentrations were subdivided into low-molecular-weight (<10 kDa) and high-molecular-weight (>10 kDa) metal species by TXRF analysis. Except for pH 9, the low-molecular-weight fraction is predominant. This fraction was further separated by HPLC with AAS detection. It was demonstrated that the nature of the metal species changes dramatically when the extraction pH is changed, especially in the range 9-7. Information about the chemical nature of chromatographically separated metal species is obtained by use of different electrochemical detectors (amperometric detection at a glassy carbon or copper electrode and pulsed amperometric detection) and diode-array UV detection.

Impaired nonhomologous end-joining provokes soft tissue sarcomas harboring chromosomal translocations, amplifications, and deletions.

Although nonhomologous end-joining (NHEJ) deficiency has been shown to accelerate lymphoma formation in mice, its role in suppressing tumors in cells that do not undergo V(D)J recombination is unclear. Utilizing a tumor-prone mouse strain (ink4a/arf(-/-)), we examined the impact of haploinsufficiency of a NHEJ component, DNA ligase IV (Lig4), on murine tumorigenesis. We demonstrate that lig4 heterozygosity promotes the development of soft-tissue sarcomas that possess clonal amplifications, deletions, and translocations. That these genomic alterations are relevant in tumorigenesis is supported by the finding of frequent mdm2 amplification, a known oncogene in human sarcoma. Together, these findings support the view that loss of a single lig4 allele results in NHEJ activity being sufficiently reduced to engender chromosomal aberrations that drive non-lymphoid tumorigenesis.

Increased accumulation of hybrid V(D)J joins in cells expressing truncated versus full-length RAGs.

RAG1 and RAG2 (RAGs) initiate V(D)J recombination by introducing breaks between two coding segments and flanking recombination signals (RSs). Nonhomologous end-joining (NHEJ) proteins then join the coding segments and join the RSs. In wild-type cells, both full-length and truncated ("core") RAGs lead to accumulation of "hybrid" V(D)J joins, in which an RS is appended to a different coding sequence. We now show that while hybrid joins do not accumulate in NHEJ-deficient cells that express full-length RAGs, they do accumulate in NHEJ-deficient cells that express the core RAGS; like those catalyzed by core RAGs in vitro, however, they are sealed on just one DNA strand. These results suggest a potential role for the non-core regions in repressing potentially harmful transposition events.

Antigen-independent appearance of recombination activating gene (RAG)-positive bone marrow B cells in the spleens of immunized mice.

Splenic B lineage cells expressing recombination activation genes (RAG(+)) in mice immunized with 4-hydroxy-3-nitrophenyl-acetyl coupled to chicken gamma-globulin (NP-CGG) and the adjuvant aluminum-hydroxide (alum) have been proposed to be mature B cells that reexpress RAG after an antigen encounter in the germinal center (GC), a notion supported by findings of RAG expression in peripheral B lymphocyte populations activated in vitro. However, recent studies indicate that these cells might be immature B cells that have not yet extinguished RAG expression. Here, we employ RAG2-green fluorescent protein (GFP) fusion gene knock-in mice to show that RAG(+) B lineage cells do appear in the spleen after the administration of alum alone, and that their appearance is independent of T cell interactions via the CD40 pathway. Moreover, splenic RAG(+) B lineage cells were detectable in immunized RAG2-deficient mice adoptively transferred with bone marrow (BM) cells, but not with spleen cells from RAG(+) mice. Although splenic RAG(+) B cells express surface markers associated with GC B cells, we also find the same basic markers on progenitor/precursor BM B cells. Finally, we did not detect RAG gene expression after the in vitro stimulation of splenic RAG(-) mature B cells with mitogens (lipopolysaccharide and anti-CD40) and cytokines (interleukin [IL]-4 and IL-7). Together, our studies indicate that RAG(+) B lineage cells from BM accumulate in the spleen after immunization, and that this accumulation is not the result of an antigen-specific response.

Cbl-b is a negative regulator of receptor clustering and raft aggregation in T cells.

Stimulation of T cells via the antigen and costimulatory receptors leads to the organization of a supramolecular activation cluster called the immune synapse. We report that loss of the molecular adaptor Cbl-b in T cells frees antigen receptor-triggered receptor clustering, lipid raft aggregation, and sustained tyrosine phosphorylation from the requirement for CD28 costimulation. Introduction of the cbl-b mutation into a vav1-/- background relieved the functional defects of vav1-/- T cells and caused spontaneous autoimmunity. Wiscott Aldrich Syndrome protein (WASP) was found to be essential for deregulated proliferation and membrane receptor reorganization of cbl-b mutant T cells. Antigen receptor-triggered Ca2+ mobilization, cytokine production, and receptor clustering can be genetically uncoupled in cbl-b mutant T cells. Thus, Cbl-b functions as a negative regulator of receptor clustering and raft aggregation in T cells.

Telomere dysfunction impairs DNA repair and enhances sensitivity to ionizing radiation.

Telomeres are specialized nucleoprotein complexes that serve as protective caps of linear eukaryotic chromosomes. Loss of telomere function is associated with rampant genetic instability and loss of cellular viability and renewal potential. The telomere also participates in processes of chromosomal repair, as evidenced by the 'capture' or de novo synthesis of telomere repeats at double-stranded breaks and by the capacity of yeast telomeres to serve as repositories of essential components of the DNA repair machinery, particularly those involved in non-homologous end-joining (NHEJ). Here we used the telomerase-deficient mouse, null for the essential telomerase RNA gene (Terc), to assess the role of telomerase and telomere function on the cellular and organismal response to ionizing radiation. Although the loss of telomerase activity per se had no discernable impact on the response to ionizing radiation, the emergence of telomere dysfunction in late-generation Terc-/- mice imparted a radiosensitivity syndrome associated with accelerated mortality. On the cellular level, the gastrointestinal crypt stem cells and primary thymocytes showed increased rates of apoptosis, and mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) showed diminished dose-dependent clonogenic survival. The radiosensitivity of telomere dysfunctional cells correlated with delayed DNA break repair kinetics, persistent chromosomal breaks and cytogenetic profiles characterized by complex chromosomal aberrations and massive fragmentation. Our findings establish a intimate relationship between functionally intact telomeres and the genomic, cellular and organismal response to ionizing radiation.

Myc-enhanced expression of Cul1 promotes ubiquitin-dependent proteolysis and cell cycle progression.

The c-Myc oncoprotein plays an important role in the growth and proliferation of normal and neoplastic cells. To execute these actions, c-Myc is thought to regulate functionally diverse sets of genes that directly govern cellular mass and progression through critical cell cycle transitions. Here, we provide several lines of evidence that c-Myc promotes ubiquitin-dependent proteolysis by directly activating expression of the Cul1 gene, encoding a critical component of the ubiquitin ligase SCF(SKP2). The cell cycle inhibitor p27(kip1) is a known target of the SCF(SKP2) complex, and Myc-induced Cul1 expression matched well with the kinetics of declining p27(kip1) protein. Enforced Cul1 expression or antisense neutralization of p27(kip1) was capable of overcoming the slow-growth phenotype of c-Myc null primary mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs). In reconstitution assays, the addition of in vitro translated Cul1 protein alone was able to restore p27(kip1) ubiquitination and degradation in lysates derived from c-myc(-/-) MEFs or density-arrested human fibroblasts. These functional and biochemical data provide a direct link between c-Myc transcriptional regulation and ubiquitin-mediated proteolysis and together support the view that c-Myc promotes G(1) exit in part via Cul1-dependent ubiquitination and degradation of the CDK inhibitor, p27(kip1).