Potentially Toxic Elements (PTEs) contamination and ecological risk of sediment in the upper course of the Ankobra River, Ghana.

Metals, when introduced into a high pH aquatic environment, generally sink into bottom sediments and can pose a direct and indirect threat to aquatic organisms as well as humans. The concentrations of ten heavy metals (Mn, Fe, Cd, Cu, Cr, Pb, Hg, As, Zn, and Al) in the surface sediment samples from the upper part of the Ankobra, which is an illegal mining (Galamsey) prone area, were assessed in both the dry and wet seasons. To ascertain the quality of sediments, sediment quality indices, including enrichment factor (EF), index of geo-accumulation (I-geo), and modified pollution index (MPI), were employed. A comprehensive potential ecological risk assessment was also carried out using the consensus-based sediment quality guideline (CBSQG) as well as the modified potential ecological risk index (MPERI). In general, the sediment is considered to be "slightly" to "moderately" polluted in the dry season as well as "moderately" to "heavily'' polluted in the wet season. The potential ecological risk of the metals in the sediments was within the considerable to high-risk grade for Hg, moderate to considerable risk for Cd, low to moderate risk for As, and low risk for Cu, Cr, Pb, and Zn. The order of decreasing potential ecological risk for the metals is Hg > Cd > As > Cu > Pb > Cr > Zn and the risk in the wet season was higher than that in the dry season.

Shared but Clean Household Toilets: What Makes This Possible? Evidence from Ghana and Kenya.

Shared sanitation facilities are not considered as basic sanitation owing to cleanliness and accessibility concerns. However, there is mounting evidence that some shared household toilets have a comparable level of service as private toilets. This study examined the factors that contribute to the quality of shared household toilets in low-income urban communities in Ghana and Kenya. The study design comprised household surveys and field inspections. Overall, 843 respondents were interviewed, and 838 household shared sanitation facilities were inspected. Cleanliness scores were computed from the facility inspections, while a total quality score was calculated based on 13 indicators comprising hygiene, privacy, and accessibility. Regression analyses were conducted to determine predictors of cleanliness and the overall quality of the shared sanitation facilities. More than four out of five (84%) shared toilets in Ghana (N = 404) were clean, while in Kenya (N = 434), nearly a third (32%) were clean. Flush/pour-flush toilets were six times (p < 0.01 aOR = 5.64) more likely to be clean. A functional outside door lock on a toilet facility and the presence of live-in landlords led to a threefold increase (p < 0.01 aOR = 2.71) and a twofold increase (p < 0.01 aOR = 1.92), respectively in the odds of shared sanitation cleanliness. Sanitation facilities shared by at most five households (95% CI: 6−7) were generally clean. High-quality shared toilets had live-in landlords, functional door locks, and were water-dependent. Further studies on innovative approaches to maintaining the quality of these high-quality shared toilets are needed to make them eligible for classification as basic sanitation considering the increasing reliance on the facilities.