Diagnostic Yield of Decubitus CT Myelography for Detection of CSF-Venous Fistulas.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Various imaging techniques have been described to detect CSF-Venous Fistulas (CVFs) in the setting of Spontaneous Intracranial Hypotension (SIH), including decubitus CT myelography (dCTM). The expected diagnostic yield of dCTM for CVF detection is not fully established. The purpose of this study was to assess the yield of dCTM among consecutive patients presenting for evaluation of possible SIH, and to examine what impact brain MRI findings of SIH had on diagnostic yield. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Single-center, retrospective cohort of consecutive patients presenting over a one-year period who underwent CTM and had no CSF identified in the epidural space. Patients with epidural CSF leaks were included in a secondary cohort. Subjects were grouped according to positioning for the myelogram, either decubitus or prone, and the presence of imaging findings of SIH on pre-procedure brain MRI. Diagnostic yields for each subgroup were calculated, and the yield of dCTM was compared to prone CTM. RESULTS: The study cohort included 302 subjects, including 247 patients with no epidural fluid. Diagnostic yield of dCTM for CVF detection among subjects with positive brain MRI and no epidural fluid was 73%. No CVFs were identified among subjects with negative brain imaging. Among subjects with epidural leak, brain MRI was negative for signs of SIH in 22%. Prone CTM identified a CVF less commonly than dCTM (43% vs. 73%, p=0.19), although the difference was not statistically significant in this small subgroup. CONCLUSIONS: We found a diagnostic yield of dCTM to be similar to the yield previously reported for digital subtraction myelography among patients with positive brain imaging. No CVFs were identified in patients with negative brain imaging; epidural CSF leaks accounted for all cases of patients who had SIH with negative brain imaging. This study provides useful data for counseling patients and helps establish a general benchmark for dCTM yield for CVF detection.ABBREVIATIONS: SIH = spontaneous intracranial hypotension; CVF = CSF-Venous Fistula; CTM = CT Myelography; dCTM = decubitus CT myelography; EBP = epidural blood patch.

Diagnosis and Treatment of Spontaneous Intracranial Hypotension: Role of Epidural Blood Patching.

Purpose of Review: This review focuses on the challenges of diagnosing and treating spontaneous intracranial hypotension (SIH), a condition caused by spinal CSF leakage. It emphasizes the need for increased awareness and advocates for early and thoughtful use of empirical epidural blood patches (EBPs) in suspected cases. Recent Findings: SIH diagnosis is hindered by variable symptoms and inconsistent imaging results, including normal brain MRI and unreliable spinal opening pressures. It is crucial to consider SIH in differential diagnoses, especially in patients with connective tissue disorders. Early EBP intervention is shown to improve outcomes. Summary: SIH remains underdiagnosed and undertreated, requiring heightened awareness and understanding. This review promotes proactive EBP use in managing suspected SIH and calls for continued research to advance diagnostic and treatment methods, emphasizing the need for innovative imaging techniques for accurate diagnosis and timely intervention.

The Importance of Planning Ahead: A Three-Dimensional Analysis of the Novel Trans-Facet Corridor for Posterior Lumbar Interbody Fusion using Segmentation Technology.

BACKGROUND: The rise of minimally invasive lumbar fusions and advanced imaging technologies has facilitated the introduction of novel surgical techniques with the trans-facet approach being one of the newest additions. We aimed to quantify any pathology-driven anatomic changes to the trans-facet corridor, which could thereby alter the ideal laterality of approach to the disc space. METHODS: In this retrospective cohort study, we measured the areas and maximum permissible cannula diameters of the trans-facet corridor using commercially available software (BrainLab, Munich, Germany). Exiting and traversing nerve roots, thecal sacs, and lumbar vertebrae were manually segmented on T2-SPACE magnetic resonance imaging. Spondylolisthesis, disc protrusions, and disc space heights were recorded. RESULTS: A total of 118 trans-facet corridors were segmented bilaterally in 16 patients (65.6 ± 12.1 years, 43.8% female, BMI 29.2 ± 5.1 kg/m2). The mean areas at L1-L2, L2-L3, L3-L4, and L4-L5 were 89.4 ± 24.9 mm2, 124 ± 39.4 mm2, 123 ± 26.6 mm2, and 159 ± 42.7 mm2, respectively. The mean permissible cannula diameter at the same levels were 7.85 ± 1.43 mm, 8.98 ± 1.72 mm, 8.93 ± 1.26 mm, and 10.2 ± 1.94 mm, respectively. Both parameters increased caudally. Higher degrees for spondylolisthesis were associated with larger areas and maximum cannula diameters on regression analysis (p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Our results illustrate that pathology, like spondylolisthesis, can increase the area of the trans-facet corridor. By understanding this effect, surgeons can better decide on the optimal approach to the disc while taking into consideration a patient's unique anatomy.

Myelography Using Energy-Integrating Detector CT Versus Photon-Counting Detector CT for Detection of CSF-Venous Fistulas in Patients With Spontaneous Intracranial Hypotension.

BACKGROUND. CSF-venous fistulas (CVFs), which are an increasingly recognized cause of spontaneous intracranial hypotension (SIH), are often diminutive in size and exceedingly difficult to detect by conventional imaging. OBJECTIVE. This purpose of this study was to compare energy-integrating detector (EID) CT myelography and photon-counting detector (PCD) CT myelography in terms of image quality and diagnostic performance for detecting CVFs in patients with SIH. METHODS. This retrospective study included 38 patients (15 men and 23 women; mean age, 55 ± 10 [SD] years) with SIH who underwent both clinically indicated EID CT myelography (slice thickness, 0.625 mm) and PCD CT myelography (slice thickness, 0.2 mm; performed in ultrahigh-resolution mode) to assess for CSF leak. Three blinded radiologists reviewed examinations in random order, assessing image noise, discernibility of spinal nerve root sleeves, and overall image quality (each assessed using a scale of 0-100, with 100 denoting highest quality) and recording locations of the CVFs. Definite CVFs were defined as CVFs described in CT myelography reports using unequivocal language and having an attenuation value greater than 70 HU. RESULTS. For all readers, PCD CT myelography, in comparison with EID CT myelography, showed higher mean image noise (reader 1: 69.9 ± 18.5 [SD] vs 37.6 ± 15.2; reader 2: 59.5 ± 8.7 vs 49.3 ± 12.7; and reader 3: 57.6 ± 13.2 vs 42.1 ± 16.6), higher mean nerve root sleeve discernibility (reader 1: 81.6 ± 21.7 [SD] vs 30.4 ± 13.6; reader 2: 83.6 ± 10 vs 70.1 ± 18.9; and reader 3: 59.6 ± 13.5 vs 50.5 ± 14.4), and higher mean overall image quality (reader 1: 83.2 ± 20.0 [SD] vs 38.1 ± 13.5; reader 2: 80.1 ± 10.1 vs 72.4 ± 19.8; and reader 3: 57.8 ± 11.2 vs 51.9 ± 13.6) (all p < .05). Eleven patients had a definite CVF. Sensitivity and specificity of EID CT myelography and PCD CT myelography for the detection of definite CVF were 45% and 96% versus 64% and 85%, respectively, for reader 1; 36% and 100% versus 55% and 96%, respectively, for reader 2; and 57% and 100% versus 55% and 93%, respectively, for reader 3. The sensitivity was significantly higher for PCD CT myelography than for EID CT myelography for reader 1 and reader 2 (both p < .05) and was not significantly different between the two techniques for reader 3 (p = .45); for all three readers, specificity was not significantly different between the two modalities (all p > .05). CONCLUSION. In comparison with EID CT myelography, PCD CT myelography yielded significantly improved image quality with significantly higher sensitivity for CVFs (for two of three readers), without significant loss of specificity. CLINICAL IMPACT. The findings support a potential role for PCD CT myelography in facilitating earlier diagnosis and targeted treatment of SIH, avoiding high morbidity during potentially prolonged diagnostic workups.

Percutaneous Treatment and Post-treatment Management of CSF Leaks and CSF-Venous Fistulas in Spontaneous Intracranial Hypotension.

Spontaneous intracranial hypotension (SIH) is a treatable cause of orthostatic headaches secondary to pathologic loss of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) from the subarachnoid space. SIH has several known pathologic causes including dural tears from disc osteophytes, leaks emanating from nerve root sleeve diverticula, and CSF-venous fistulas (CVFs). Depending on the type of leak, surgical repair or endovascular techniques may be options for definite treatment. However, epidural blood patching (EBP) remains first-line therapy for many patients due to its long track record, broad availability, and relatively lower risk profile. This review focuses on indications and techniques for the percutaneous treatment of SIH and provides an overview of post-procedural management of these patients.

Patient experience of spontaneous intracranial hypotension (SIH): qualitative interviews for concept elicitation.

BACKGROUND & OBJECTIVES: Spontaneous intracranial hypotension (SIH) is an underdiagnosed and debilitating condition caused by a spinal cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) leak. Although SIH can lead to substantial morbidity and disability, little data exists about patients' perspectives. Without hearing directly from patients, our understanding of the full experience of having SIH is limited, as is our ability to identify and use appropriate patient-reported outcome measures (PROMs) within clinical care and research. The purpose of this study was to conduct qualitative interviews with confirmed SIH patients to fully describe their experiences and identify relevant concepts to measure. METHODS: Patients were recruited from an SIH specialty clinic at a large, U.S.-based healthcare center. Patients undergoing an initial consultation who were ≥ 18 years old, English-speaking, met the International Classification of Headache Disorders-3 criteria for SIH, and had a brain MRI with contrast that was positive for SIH were eligible to participate. During semi-structured qualitative interviews with a trained facilitator, participants were asked to describe their current SIH symptoms, how their experiences with SIH had changed over time, and the aspects of SIH that they found most bothersome. Analysts reviewed the data, created text summaries, and wrote analytic reports. RESULTS: Fifteen participants completed interviews. Common symptoms reported by patients included headache, tinnitus, ear fullness/pressure/pain, and neck or interscapular pain. Patients reported that their symptoms worsened over the course of their day and with activity. The most bothersome aspect of SIH was disruption to daily activities and limits to physical activities/exercise, which were severe. With regard to symptoms, the most bothersome and impactful included physical pain and discomfort (including headache), as well as fatigue. CONCLUSIONS: Patients reported a diverse set of symptoms that were attributed to SIH, with devastating impacts on functioning and high levels of disability. Researchers considering use of PROMs for SIH should consider inclusion of both symptom scales and aspects of functioning, and future work should focus on evaluating the validity of existing measures for this patient population using rigorous qualitative and quantitative methods in diverse samples. Additionally, these data can be used to assist clinicians in understanding the impacts of SIH on patients.

The role of Artificial intelligence in the assessment of the spine and spinal cord.

Artificial intelligence (AI) application development is underway in all areas of radiology where many promising tools are focused on the spine and spinal cord. In the past decade, multiple spine AI algorithms have been created based on radiographs, computed tomography, and magnetic resonance imaging. These algorithms have wide-ranging purposes including automatic labeling of vertebral levels, automated description of disc degenerative changes, detection and classification of spine trauma, identification of osseous lesions, and the assessment of cord pathology. The overarching goals for these algorithms include improved patient throughput, reducing radiologist workload burden, and improving diagnostic accuracy. There are several pre-requisite tasks required in order to achieve these goals, such as automatic image segmentation, facilitating image acquisition and postprocessing. In this narrative review, we discuss some of the important imaging AI solutions that have been developed for the assessment of the spine and spinal cord. We focus on their practical applications and briefly discuss some key requirements for the successful integration of these tools into practice. The potential impact of AI in the imaging assessment of the spine and cord is vast and promises to provide broad reaching improvements for clinicians, radiologists, and patients alike.

Facets of facet joint interventions.

Facet joint (FJ) disease is a common cause of axial low back pain with many minimally invasive image-guided treatment options. This article discusses fluoroscopic and CT-guided intraarticular FJ injections, medial branch (MB) radiofrequency ablation (RFA), and lumbar facet synovial cyst (LFSC) aspiration, rupture, or fenestration. Additionally, the article will highlight medial branch blocks (MBBs) utilized to diagnose facet-mediated pain and to predict outcomes to RFA.

Image-Guided Spine Interventions for Pain: Ongoing Controversies.

An expanding array of image-guided spine interventions have the potential to provide immediate and effective pain relief. Innovations in spine intervention have proceeded rapidly, with clinical adoption of new techniques at times occurring before the development of bodies of evidence to establish efficacy. Although new spine interventions have been evaluated by clinical trials, acceptance of results has been hindered by controversies regarding trial methodology. This article explores controversial aspects of four categories of image-guided interventions for painful conditions: spine interventions for postdural puncture headache resulting from prior lumbar procedures, epidural steroid injections for cervical and lumbar radiculopathy, interventions for facet and sacroiliac joint pain, and vertebral augmentations for compression fractures. For each intervention, we summarize the available literature, with an emphasis on persistent controversies, and discuss how current areas of disagreement and challenge may shape future research and innovation. Despite the ongoing areas of debate regarding various aspects of these procedures, effective treatments continue to emerge and show promise for aiding relief of a range of debilitating conditions.

Treatment Patterns and Health Care Resource Utilization of Iatrogenic Spinal Cerebrospinal Fluid Leaks in the United States.

STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective cohort study. OBJECTIVE: We aimed to characterize the treatment patterns and the associated costs in patients with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) leak after spine procedures in the United States. BACKGROUND: CSF leak is a common complication after spinal procedures. However, there is a little data regarding the national patterns of treatment choice and the associated health care resource utilization. METHODS: We utilized the IBM MarketScan Research databases to retrospectively analyze adult US patients diagnosed with CSF leak within 30 days of spine procedures between 2001 and 2018. Treatment prevalence, treatment failure, and health care resource utilization data within 30 days of the CSF leak were collected. A subanalysis was performed on patients who received epidural blood patches (EBP) to better understand health care utilization attributable to this treatment modality. RESULTS: Twenty one thousand four hundred fourteen patients were identified. The most common causes of CSF leak were diagnostic spinal tap (59.2%) and laminectomy/discectomy (18.7%). With regard to treatment prevalence, 40.4% of the patients (n=8651) had conservative medical management, 46.6% (n=9987) received epidural blood patch repair, 9.6% required surgical repair (n=2066), and 3.3% (n=710) had lumbar drain/puncture. Nine hundred sixty-seven (9.7%), 150 (21.1%), and 280 (13.5%) patients failed initial EBP, lumbar drain, and surgery, respectively, and the overall failure rate was 10.9% (n=1397). The median 30-day total cost across all groups was $5,101. Patients who received lumbar drain ($22,341) and surgical repair ($30,199) had higher 30-day median total costs than EBP ($8,140) or conservative management ($17,012). The median 30-day total cost for patients whose EBP failed ($8,179) was substantially greater than those with a successful EBP repair ($3,439). CONCLUSIONS: National treatment patterns and costs for CSF leaks were described. When used in the correct patient cohort, EBP has the lower failure rates and costs than comparable alternatives. EBP may be considered more often in situations where conservative management or lumbar drains are currently being used.

Efficacy of epidural blood patching or surgery in spontaneous intracranial hypotension: an evidence map protocol.

BACKGROUND: Spontaneous intracranial hypotension (SIH) is a debilitating disorder caused by non-iatrogenic spinal cerebrospinal fluid leaks. SIH is increasingly recognized as an important treatable cause of secondary headaches. Treatment involves either epidural blood patching or surgery, which have considerable differences in their adverse event rates, recovery times, and cost. The objective of this evidence map is to understand the breadth of studies that investigate SIH treatment efficacy and to identify knowledge gaps to inform future research. METHODS: This review will consider experimental, observational, and systematic review studies that assess the efficacy of epidural blood patching and surgery for the treatment of patients with SIH. Individual case studies, clinical guidelines, editorials, protocols, and studies that do not assess an intervention will not be included. English language studies will be included without limitation based on the date of publication. Databases to be searched include MEDLINE® (via Ovid), EMBASE (via Elsevier), and Web of Science™ (via Clarivate). Study selection will be performed independently by two investigators with extracted data to include study type, the number of patients included, patient descriptors, intervention characteristics, and outcome measure used. Data will be presented through a narrative summary aided by tabular and graphical formats in a manner that aligns with the objective of the evidence mapping review. DISCUSSION: The overarching goal of this evidence map is to provide an improved understanding of the breadth of studies investigating SIH treatment efficacy in the literature and to thereby identify knowledge gaps that can inform future research directions. TRIAL REGISTRATION: OSF Registry https://osf.io/nwju7 .

Dual energy CT for the identification of CSF-Venous Fistulas and CSF leaks in spontaneous intracranial hypotension: Report of four cases.

Spontaneous intracranial hypotension (SIH) is a debilitating condition caused by spinal CSF leaks or CSF-venous fistulas (CVFs). Localizing the causative CSF leak or CVF is critical for definitive treatment but can be difficult using conventional myelographic techniques because these lesions are often low contrast compared to background, diminutive, and in some cases may be mistaken for calcified structures. Dual energy CT (DECT) can increase the conspicuity of iodinated contrast compared to background and can provide the ability to distinguish materials based on differing anatomic properties, making it well suited to address the shortcomings of conventional myelography in SIH. The purpose of this report is to illustrate the potential benefits of using DECT as an adjunct to traditional myelographic techniques in order to increase the conspicuity of these often-subtle CVFs and CSF leaks. This retrospective case series included 4 adult patients with SIH who demonstrated findings equivocal for either CVF or CSF leak using our institution's standard initial CT myelogram and in whom subsequent evaluation with DECT ultimately helped to identify the CVF or CSF leak. DECT demonstrated utility by increasing the conspicuity of two subtle CVFs compared to background and also helped to differentiate between calcified osteophytes and extradural contrast in 2 CSF leaks, confirming their presence and identifying the causative pathology. Our observations demonstrate the benefit of DECT as a problem-solving tool in the accurate diagnosis and localization of CVFs and CSF leaks.

Popping the balloon: Abrupt onset of a spinal CSF leak and spontaneous intracranial hypotension in idiopathic intracranial hypertension, a case report.

OBJECTIVES: Spontaneous intracranial hypotension (SIH) is a debilitating neurologic condition that is often thought of as separate from idiopathic intracranial hypertension (IIH). The unique case presented here details a spontaneous spinal cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) leak that developed abruptly following a CSF pressure elevating maneuver in a patient with pre-existing intracranial hypertension, raising the possibility of a causative link between the two conditions. RESULTS: A 40-year-old woman with symptomatic IIH developed a dural tear of a thoracic spinal nerve root sleeve during an episode of Valsalva maneuver leading to a CSF leak and development of symptomatic SIH. This was successfully treated with epidural blood and fibrin glue patch and the patient is now symptom-free. DISCUSSION: The implication of a possible causative link between elevated CSF pressure and subsequent development of dural rupture and SIH raises important questions regarding the pathophysiology of SIH in some cases. Furthermore, it suggests that there could be a potential prophylactic benefit of CSF pressure lowering medications in preventing the development of SIH in patients with IIH.

Differentiation of Chiari malformation type 1 and spontaneous intracranial hypotension using objective measurements of midbrain sagging.

OBJECTIVE: Chiari malformation type 1 (CM-1) and spontaneous intracranial hypotension (SIH) are causes of headache in which cerebellar tonsillar ectopia (TE) may be present. An accurate method for differentiating these conditions on imaging is needed to avoid diagnostic confusion. Here, the authors sought to determine whether objective measurements of midbrain morphology could distinguish CM-1 from SIH on brain MRI. METHODS: This is a retrospective case-control series comparing neuroimaging in consecutive adult subjects with CM-1 and SIH. Measurements obtained from brain MRI included previously reported measures of brain sagging: TE, slope of the third ventricular floor (3VF), pontomesencephalic angle (PMA), mamillopontine distance, lateral ventricular angle, internal cerebral vein-vein of Galen angle, and displacement of iter (DOI). Clivus length (CL), an indicator of posterior fossa size, was also measured. Measurements for the CM-1 group were compared to those for the entire SIH population (SIHall) as well as a subgroup of SIH patients with > 5 mm of TE (SIHTE subgroup). RESULTS: Highly significant differences were observed between SIHall and CM-1 groups in the following measures: TE (mean ± standard deviation, 3.1 ± 5.7 vs 9.3 ± 3.5 mm), 3VF (-16.8° ± 11.2° vs -2.1° ± 4.6°), PMA (44.8° ± 13.1° vs 62.7° ± 9.8°), DOI (0.2 ± 4.1 vs 3.8 ± 1.6 mm), and CL (38.3 ± 4.5 vs 44.0 ± 3.3 mm; all p < 0.0001). Eight (16%) of 50 SIH subjects had TE > 5 mm; in this subgroup (SIHTE), a cutoff value of < -15° for 3VF and < 45° for PMA perfectly discriminated SIH from CM-1 (sensitivity and specificity = 1.0). DOI showed perfect specificity (1.0) in detecting SIH among both groups. No subjects with SIH had isolated TE without other concurrent findings of midbrain sagging. CONCLUSIONS: Measures of midbrain sagging, including cutoff values for 3VF and PMA, discriminate CM-1 from SIH and may help to prevent misdiagnosis and unnecessary surgery.

Digital manometry to measure cerebrospinal fluid pressure during lumbar puncture.

RATIONALE AND OBJECTIVES: Accurate cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) pressure measurements are critical for diagnosis and treatment of pathologic processes involving the central nervous system. Measuring opening CSF pressure using an analog device takes several minutes, which can be burdensome in a busy practice. The purpose of this study was to compare accuracy of a digital pressure measurement device with analog manometry, the reference gold standard. Secondary purpose included an assessment of possible time savings. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This study was a retrospective, cross-sectional investigation of 71 patients who underwent image-guided lumbar puncture (LP) with opening CSF pressure measurement at a single institution from June 2019 to September 2019. Exclusion criteria were examinations without complete data for both the digital and analog measurements or without recorded needle gauge. All included LPs and CSF pressures were measured with the patient in the left lateral decubitus position, legs extended. Acquired data included (1) digital and analog CSF pressures and (2) time required to measure CSF pressure. RESULTS: A total of 56 procedures were analyzed in 55 patients. There was no significant difference in mean CSF pressures between devices: 22.5 cm H2O digitally vs 23.1 analog (p = .7). Use of the digital manometer resulted in a time savings of 6 min (438 s analog vs 78 s digital, p < .001). CONCLUSION: Cerebrospinal fluid pressure measurements obtained with digital manometry demonstrate comparable accuracy to the reference standard of analog manometry, with an average time savings of approximately 6 min per case.

CSF-Venous Fistulas: Anatomy and Diagnostic Imaging.

CSF-venous fistulas (CVFs), first described in 2014, are an important cause of spontaneous intracranial hypotension. CVFs can be challenging to detect on conventional anatomic imaging because, unlike other types of spinal CSF leak, they do not typically result in pooling of fluid in the epidural space, and imaging signs of CVF may be subtle. Specialized myelographic techniques have been developed to help with CVF identification, but these techniques are not yet widely disseminated. This article reviews the current understanding of CVFs, emphasizing correlations between venous anatomy and imaging findings as well as potential mechanisms for pathogenesis, and describes current imaging techniques used for CVF diagnosis and localization. These techniques are broadly classified into fluoroscopy-based methods, including digital subtraction myelography and dynamic myelography, and cross-sectional methods, including decubitus CT myelography and MR myelography with intrathecal injection of gadolinium. Knowledge of these various options, including their relative advantages and disadvantages, is critical in the care of patients with spontaneous intracranial hypotension. Investigation is ongoing, and continued advances in knowledge about CVFs as well as in optimal imaging detection are anticipated.