Cognitive Status and Nutritional Markers in a Sample of Institutionalized Elderly People.

Background: Since many of the risk factors for cognitive decline can be modified by diet, the study of nutrition and its relationships with cognitive status in aging has increased considerably in recent years. However, there are hardly any studies that have assessed cognitive status using a comprehensive set of neuropsychological tests along with measures of functional capacity and mood and that have related it to nutritional status measured from several nutritional parameters that have shown its relationships with cognitive function. Objective: To test the differences in depressive symptomatology and in several measures of nutritional status between three groups classified according to their cognitive status (CS hereafter). Method: One hundred thirteen participants from nursing homes in Galicia, Spain, underwent a comprehensive neuropsychological examination, including a general screening test (MMSE) and tests for different cognitive domains along with measures of activities of daily living (ADL) and assessment of depressive symptomatology (GDS-SF). According to established clinical criteria, participants were divided into three CS groups, Cognitively Intact (CI), Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI), and All-Cause Dementia (ACD). Nutritional status was also examined using blood-derived measures, body mass index (BMI) and a nutritional screening test (MNA-SF). Differences between CS groups in all nutritional variables were studied by one-way ANOVAs with post-hoc Bonferroni correction or Kruskal-Wallis with Games-Howell post-hoc correction when appropriate. Multinomial logistic regression was also applied to test the association between nutritional variables and CS. Results: Differences between CS groups were statistically significant for depressive symptomatology, vitamin A and D, albumin, selenium (Se), uric acid (UA), and BMI. The results of multinomial logistic regression found positive associations between groups with better CS and higher concentrations of vitamins A and D, transthyretin (TTR), albumin, Se, and UA, while negative associations were found for BMI. Conclusion: Higher serum levels of vitamin A, vitamin D, TTR, albumin, Se, and UA could act as protective factors against cognitive decline, whereas higher BMI could act as a risk factor.

The Relationship between Motivation and Burnout in Athletes and the Mediating Role of Engagement.

The purpose of our research was to analyze the relationship among motivation, burnout, and engagement in sports. Five hundred athletes of both sexes from multiple sports modalities took part, with a mean age of 17.39 years (SD = 4.60). The instruments applied were as follows: Spanish versions of the Sport Motivation Scale (SMS), the Athlete Engagement Questionnaire (AEQ) and the Athlete Burnout Questionnaire (ABQ). Pearson correlations showed that motivation is negatively related to burnout and positively to engagement, while burnout and engagement are inversely related to each other. Through structural equation modeling, it was shown that engagement has a mediating role between motivation and burnout. Furthermore, there are no gender differences in this relationship, although there are differences between athletes who practice individual sports and those who practice collective sports. Encouraging high levels of self-determined motivation can help to increase athletes' degree of engagement and protect them against burnout and sport withdrawal.

Basic Psychological Needs, Burnout and Engagement in Sport: The Mediating Role of Motivation Regulation.

The purpose of the present research was to analyze the mediating role of motivational regulation between the satisfaction of basic psychological needs and burnout and engagement in athletes. From different sports 1011 young Spanish athletes participated in the study. Participants completed several measurement instruments concerning: the Basic Needs Satisfaction in Sport Scale, Behavioral Regulation in Sport Questionnaire, Athlete Burnout Questionnaire and Athlete Engagement Questionnaire. The results of structural equation modeling showed that the satisfaction of basic psychological needs has direct effects on burnout and engagement: a negative effect on athlete burnout (-0.49, p < 0.001) and a positive effect on engagement (0.54, p < 0.001). In addition, the satisfaction of basic psychological needs has a partial indirect effect over these variables in the same direction mediated by the self-determined degree of motivation. Thus, low levels of self-regulated motivation are positively related to burnout, but high levels of self-determined motivation are not. The same was observed with engagement, but vice versa: high levels of self-determined motivation are positively related to athlete engagement, but low levels of self-determined motivation are not. The proposed model explained 37% of the variance of burnout and 51% of the variance of engagement.

A Follow-Up Study of Cognitive Development in Low Risk Preterm Children.

The results of a longitudinal study on the cognitive development of one group of full-term and three groups of low risk preterm children with different gestational ages (GA) are presented. The 181 participants were divided into four GA groups of similar size. The aims were: 1) To check if there are differences in cognitive development (measured through the Batelle scale) among the GA groups. 2) To establish the predictive factors of cognitive development at 22 and 60 months of age, taking into account biomedical, environmental and individual factors. The results of the repeated measures ANOVA performed at 22 and 60 months of age indicated that the cognitive trajectories of the four GA groups were similar. Linear regression analyses showed that the effect of the different predictors changed in relation to the time of measurement of cognitive development. Biological factors and the quality of home environment had a moderate effect on the cognitive development at 22 months of age. Cognitive results obtained at 22 months of age, and, to a lesser extent, working memory had the greatest effect on cognitive development at 60 months. GA does not predict cognitive development. Preterm children do not show cognitive delay if they are healthy.

Assessing the use of psychological skills by sports category and the relation with sports performance satisfaction.

BACKGROUND: The evaluation of psychological skills by athletes and their relationship with sports performance and satisfaction has been of great interest in recent decades. Likewise, there has been an emergent tendency to focus on developing specific psychological skills for each sport. The principal aim of this study was to determine the frequency with which athletes deploy psychological skills whilst competing and whether their frequency varies in accordance with the technical, tactical and physical characteristics of the sport in question. A further objective was to establish the connection between the frequency of use of psychological skills and athletes' degree of satisfaction with their performance. METHODS: The study comprised 1003 athletes practicing 43 different sports, grouped into 7 categories based on the similarities between them. Frequency of use of the psychological skills was measured with the Test of Performance Strategies 3. RESULTS: The data analyses allowed the following conclusions to be drawn: the degree to which psychological skills are used is dependent on the technical, tactical and physical characteristics of each sport; and the higher the frequency of the use of psychological skills, the greater the athletes' degree of satisfaction with their performance. CONCLUSIONS: These results allow athletes and coaches to increase levels of sports performance by working on the use of psychological skills, adapted to the technical, tactical or physical requirements of the category in which their sport is included. In addition, working on different psychological skills will improve their satisfaction with sports performance.

The mediating role of sport self-motivation between basic psychological needs satisfaction and athlete engagement.

BACKGROUND: Engagement could constitute a frame of reference for promoting positive experiences in sport, hence the importance of learning about what precedes it in order to promote its development. This study was conducted to examine the role of self-motivation as a mediator between basic psychological needs satisfaction and athlete engagement. METHOD: A sample of 426 male and female athletes from different sports were asked to complete three questionnaires measuring each of the study variables: The Basic Needs Satisfaction in Sport Scale, the Behavioral Regulation in Sport Questionnaire and the Athlete Engagement Questionnaire. A structural relationships model between the constructs analyzed was specified and implemented. RESULTS: High levels of self-motivation increased levels of athlete engagement and vice versa. CONCLUSION: Basic psychological needs satisfaction has a direct positive effect on athlete engagement and in turn, an indirect effect mediated by athletes' self-motivation.

Preliminary Empirical Validation of the "Basic Needs Satisfaction in Sport Scale" With a Sample of Spanish Athletes.

The theory of self-determination establishes the existence of three basic psychological needs (autonomy, competence, and relationship). If these needs are satisfied, optimal personal well-being will be achieved. The Basic Needs Satisfactions in Sport Scale (BNSSS) is a measurement developed to evaluate these needs within the sporting context. The BNSSS measures the satisfaction of the three basic psychological needs through 20 items distributed in five dimensions: autonomy-choice, autonomy-volition, autonomy-perceived locus of internal causality, competence, and relatedness. The purpose of this study is to validate a Spanish version of the BNSSS. The sample were 441 team athletes with a mean age of 17.46 (SD = 3.59), which 46.5% were men and the remaining percentage (53.5%) were women. After a standardised data collection, confirmatory factor analysis and invariance analyses were performed, as well as composite reliability. The obtained version showed a good overall fit of the model and values of composite reliability higher to 0.70. Therefore, a useful tool for assessing basic psychological needs in team sports was obtained.

Adaptation of the Test of Performance Strategies Competition Subscale to Spanish.

BACKGROUND: In recent years, there has been a growing interest in the conceptualisation and assessment of athletes’ psychological skills and the study of their impact on sports performance. The aim of this study was to adapt the Test of Performance Strategies 3 competition subscale to the Spanish context. METHOD: The items included in the original test in English were translated using a double-back method, and the test was completed by a sample of 1,003 Spanish athletes of both sexes. Analyses of the factorial validity, reliability and invariance of the measurement model were carried out. RESULTS: Favourable evidence was obtained for a measurement model comprising 36 items grouped in 9 factors, similar to the original model. Model fit was reasonable for both individual parameters and overall. Reliability rates were satisfactory for the overall test and for each factor. Evidence was also favourable for sex-based measurement model invariance. CONCLUSIONS: The adaptation is satisfactory and fit for use by sports psychology researchers and professionals in assessing the psychological skills employed by athletes in competition.

Relationship between Leadership among Peers and Burnout in Sports Teams.

This study has been conducted with the aim of ascertaining the relationship between peer leaders in sport teams and the levels of burnout experienced by their team-mates. A total of 219 Spanish athletes involved in football and basketball participated in the study. To measure leadership among peers, we employed the Sports Peer Leadership Scale, which comprises 24 items, grouped into 6 primary factors: empathy, influence on decision making, sports values, social support, training orientation and competition orientation. And to measure burnout, we employed the Athlete Burnout Questionnaire, which comprises 15 items which are indicators of physical and emotional exhaustion, devaluation and reduced sense of accomplishment among athletes. The results led to the conclusion that there is a statistically significant negative relationship between perceived leadership capacity and the levels of burnout experience by a team. The greater the level of leadership capacity perceived, the lower the levels of burnout will be. A multiple regression analysis with total burnout as dependent variable and social and task orientations of the leader as predictors showed standardized regression coefficients of -.241 (p = .010) and -.076 (p = .413), respectively for social and task orientation, being the effect size equal to .089.

Antecedents and consequences of burnout in athletes: Perceived stress and depression.

Background/Objective: The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship among perceived stress, burnout and depression in a sample of athletes. It was hypothesized that stress is an antecedent of burnout and depression a possible consequence of both stress and burnout. Method: A sample of 453 athletes participated in the study. Stress and depression were measured with Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS) and athlete burnout with Athlete Burnout Questionnaire (ABQ). Data analysis was conducted under the approach of structural equation modelling (SEM). Results: The direct effects of stress on burnout and depression were .66 and .24, respectively, and the direct effect of burnout on depression .53, all of them significant (p<.001). Stress accounted for 43% of the variance of burnout, and jointly stress and burnout for 50% of the variance of depression. Indexes of overall model fit were: χ 2 (224)= 520.881 (p < .001), χ 2 /df = 2.32, Goodness of fit index (GFI) = .91, Comparative fit index (CFI) = .89, Root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) = .054 (90% confidence interval, .048-.060), and Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR) = .063. Conclusions: This study provides evidence of the relationship among stress, burnout and depression in an only model.

Antecedentes/Objetivo: El objetivo fue investigar la relación entre estrés percibido, burnout y depresión en deportistas. Se presenta el estrés como antecedente del burnout y la depresión como consecuencia de ambos. Método: Participaron en el estudio 453 deportistas. Estrés y depresión fueron medidos con Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS) y burnout en deportistas con Athlete Burnout Questionnaire (ABQ). Los datos fueron analizados desde la perspectiva de modelos de ecuaciones estructurales (SEM). Resultados: El efecto directo del estrés sobre el burnout y la depresión fue de 0,66 y 0,24, respectivamente y el del burnout sobre la depresión de 0,53; todos ellos significativos (p < 0,001). El estrés explica el 43% de la varianza del burnout y el estrés conjuntamente con el burnout, el 50% de la varianza de la depresión. Los índices de ajuste del modelo fueron: χ 2 (224)= 520,881 (p <0,001), χ 2 /df = 2,32, el índice de bondad de ajuste (GFI) = 0,91, el índice de bondad de ajuste comparativo (CFI)= 0,89, la raíz del residuo cuadrático promedio de aproximación (RMSEA) = 0,054 (90% intervalo de confianza, 0,048-0,060) y raíz cuadrada de la media cuadrática del residual estandarizado (SRMR) = 0,063. Conclusiones: Este estudio permite conocer la relación existente entre estrés, burnout y depresión en un único modelo.

Adaptation of the Athlete Burnout Questionnaire in a Spanish sample of athletes.

In this paper, we offer a general version of the Spanish adaptation of Athlete Burnout Questionnaire (ABQ) designed to measure the syndrome of burnout in athletes of different sports. In previous works, the Spanish version of ABQ was administered to different samples of soccer players. Its psychometric properties were appropriate and similar to the findings in original ABQ. The purpose of this study was to examine the generalization to others sports of the Spanish adaptation. We started from this adaptation, but we included three alternative statements (one for each dimension of the questionnaire), and we replaced the word "soccer" with the word "sport". An 18-item version was administered to a sample of 487 athletes aged 13 and 29 years old. Confirmatory factor analyses replicated the factor structure, but two items modification were necessary in order to obtain a good overall fit of the model. The internal consistency and test-retest reliability of the questionnaire were satisfactory.

Evaluación del liderazgo informal en equipos deportivos / Informal leadership assessment in sports teams

Los estudios de liderazgo deportivo están focalizados, mayoritariamente, en el liderazgo formal del entrenador en el que el Modelo Multidimensional del Liderazgo de Chelladurai es la referencia fundamental. Sin embargo, otro tipo de liderazgo, el informal, puede ser observado en los equipos deportivos: el que ejercen algunos deportistas entre sus compañeros de equipo. Sin embargo, en este caso, la investigación no está tan avanzada como en el caso del entrenador, tanto en el aspecto teórico como en la evaluación. Para superar las limitaciones de estudios previos sobre liderazgo informal, el objetivo de la presente investigación ha sido la construcción de una escala de evaluación del liderazgo ejercido por deportistas, la cual fue diseñada a partir de una muestra de 407 jugadores de fútbol españoles, de categorías senior, que evaluaran las características de los líderes de equipos deportivos sobre un total de 54 ítems. Se realizaron análisis factoriales exploratorios y confirmatorios, así como análisis de fiabilidad y evaluación de la consistencia interna de los factores. Los resultados ofrecieron una escala de 30 ítems, agrupados en 5 factores, que fueron denominados empatía, orientación a la tarea, influencia en la toma de decisiones, valores deportivos y apoyo social. Se obtuvieron índices de ajuste satisfactorios para el modelo, para la fiabilidad de los ítems y para el análisis de consistencia interna de los factores. Se realizó un análisis factorial de segundo orden, con el resultado de que la orientación a la tarea se posiciona separada de los otros cuatro factores primarios, que se agrupan en un factor de orientación social.

Studies into sport leadership are focused, mostly, in the formal leadership of the coach, in which Chelladurai's Multidimensional Model of Leadership is the principal theoretical reference. However, another kind of informal leadership can be observed in sport teams: peer leadership. Research on peer leadership is not as advanced as research on the formal leadership of the coach, neither in theoretical terms nor in the assessment. To overcome the shortcomings presented in previous investigations about informal leadership, the aim of the present research has been the development of a scale for the evaluation of the peer leadership in sport teams, which was designed asking a sample of 407 senior Spanish football players to evaluate the characteristics of sport leaders over a total of 54 indicators. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses were developed, also reliability analysis and evaluation of the internal consistency of factors. The results offered a 30 indicators scale, grouped into five factors denominated: empathy, task orientation, influence in decision-making, sport values and social support. Satisfactory fit indexes have been obtained for the model, for the reliability of items and for the internal consistency of factors. A secondrange exploratory factor analysis was performed, with the result that task orientation is positioned separated from the other four primary factors, which are grouped into one social orientation factor.

Factor structure and invariance of the POMS Mood State Questionnaire in Spanish.

The purpose of this study was to examine the extent to which the Spanish POMS assesses the same factors as the original form of the questionnaire. We started from a version with 63 items, representing seven conceptual dimensions. This version was administered to a sample of 364 adult athletes. In the whole sample, exploratory factor analytic findings suggested a more parsimonious measurement model, with 44 items and 6 first-order factors. Then the data from said sample were randomly divided into two sets, each containing about 50% of the subjects. The fit of the first sample set (n = 166) to the proposed model was adequate. Four of the main goodness-of-fit indices exhibited the following values: CFI = .95, NNFI = .95, SRMR = .083, and RMSEA = .064. We tested the same model in the second data set (n = 198), in which the fit was also acceptable, with values of .95, .94, .088, and .066 for CFI, NNFI, SRMR, and RMSEA, respectively. In addition, we used multi-group confirmatory factor analysis to provide evidence on the invariance of the model.

[Spanish version of Athlete Burnout Questionnaire (ABQ) for the measurement of burnout in soccer players]. / Adaptación española del Ahtlete Burnout Questionnaire (ABQ) para la medida del burnout en futbolistas.

The Athlete Burnout Questionnaire (ABQ) is a 15-item questionnaire that comprises three subscales: emotional/physical exhaustion, reduced sense of accomplishment, and sport devaluation. In a preliminary work, the ABQ was translated into Spanish and administered to 140 male soccer players. In the present study, we include alternative statements for weaker items. A 21-item version was administered to a sample of 326 soccer players of both sexes aged 14-23 years old. Using item and factor analyses, the questionnaire was shortened to 15 items. Then, the data was submitted to confirmatory factor analysis to corroborate the usual three-factor structure. Overall fit of the model was acceptable with a value of .97 for CFI, .96 for NNFI, .93 for GFI, .059 RMSEA, and .061 for RMR.

Symptomatic profile and health-related quality of life of persons affected by the Prestige catastrophe.

This study analyses the impact of the Prestige oil spill on the mental health and the perception of physical health and functional capacity in the affected population. The sample comprised 926 residents from the section of the Spanish coast affected by the oil spill. The data was collected slightly more than one year after the accident. Scales referring to clinical symptoms (SCL-36) and health-related quality of life (SF-36) were administered. The results suggest that individuals with higher degrees of exposure or residing in areas closest to the spill show lower levels of mental health in comparison to those with lower levels of exposure or living in areas farther away from the spill. This study also finds that women and fishermen tend to suffer more from the consequences of these types of disaster.

[Mood state indicators for adolescent athletes based on POMS multidimensional model]. / Indicadores del estado de ánimo en deportistas adolescentes según el modelo multidimensional del POMS.

In this paper, we offer a short version of the POMS, with only 33 items, designed to apply to young Spanish athletes. One hundred and six male soccer players, aged 14 and 15 years, participated in the study. In order to select the proposed items, we tried to maximize three criteria: (1) items should be understood by subjects, (2) items should be perceived as conceptually similar as possible to the meaning of their respective factors, and (3) every factor should contain at least 4 items. To meet the second criterion, PROXSCAL scaling procedure was used, which allowed retaining the items closest to the meaning of each factor. All goodness-of-fit indexes were satisfactory in all the proximity analyses performed. In the proposed POMS version, the 33 items refer to seven mood factors, as follows: Tension (4 items), Depression (9 items), Anger (4 items), Vigour (4 items), Fatigue (4 items), Confusion (4 items), and Friendliness (4 items).

[Development of a scale to measure leadership capacity of players in sports teams]. / Elaboración de una escala para la medida de la capacidad de liderazgo de los deportistas de equipo.

This study describes the process of developing a scale to measure the leadership capacity of players in sports teams. Research into sports leadership has focused almost exclusively on the formal leadership of the coach, in which the studies by Chelladurai, with his five-factor model, have become an essential point of reference. Nevertheless, hardly any research has been carried out into the leadership that certain players exercise over the other team members. For this purpose, a sample of 143 male basketball players was used; these participants were asked to evaluate the characteristics of the sports leader over a total of 54 indicators. Firstly, explanatory factor analysis was performed with participants' responses, using principal axis and oblique rotation methods. The factor structure obtained was then subjected to confirmatory factorial analysis, enabling us to propose a Sports Leader Evaluation Scale (EELD, in Spanish) with 18 items grouped into 3 factors, denominated empathy and responsibility, assertiveness, and impulsiveness. Satisfactory fit indices were obtained for the model, for the reliability of items and for the internal consistency of factors.

[Adaptation of the MSCI for the measurement of cohesion in Spanish young soccer players]. / Adaptación del cuestionario MSCI para la medida de la cohesión en futbolistas jóvenes españoles.

This work describes the Spanish adaptation and studies the psychometric properties of Yukelson, Weinberg, and Jackson's Multidimensional Sport Cohesion Instrument (MSCI) with a sample of 173 soccer players. The Spanish version is composed of 22 items grouped in four factors: quality of teamwork (performance aspects), attraction to the group, valued roles and quality of teamwork (interpersonal relationships), that accounted for 53.30% of the total variance. Reliability coefficients (Cronbach's Alphas) for the factors ranged from .84 (factor 1) to .56 (factor 4). Suggestions are made for future research on the validity of the scale, mainly in terms of convergence with other multidimensional measures of sport cohesion.