Omega-3 Fatty Acid Supplementation on Post-Exercise Inflammation, Muscle Damage, Oxidative Response, and Sports Performance in Physically Healthy Adults-A Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials.

Omega-3 is a family of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), which have been used to treat a wide variety of chronic diseases, due mainly to their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, among others. In this context, omega-3 could be post-exercise recovery agent and sports supplement that could improve performance by preserving and promoting skeletal muscle mass and strength. No conclusive evidence, however, exists about the potential effects of omega-3 on post-exercise biomarkers and sports performance in physically healthy adults. Based on the PRISMA in Exercise, Rehabilitation, Sports Medicine, and Sports Science (PERSiST) guidelines, we systematically reviewed studies indexed in Web of Science, Scopus, and Medline to assess the effects of omega-3 on post-exercise inflammation, muscle damage, oxidant response, and sports performance in physically healthy adults. The search was performed on original articles published in the last 10 years up to 5 May 2024, with a controlled trial design in which omega-3 supplementation was compared with a control group. Among 14,971 records identified in the search, 13 studies met the selection criteria. The duration of the interventions ranged from 1 day to 26 weeks of supplementation and the doses used were heterogeneous. Creatine kinase (CK) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) were significantly higher (p < 0.05) in the control group in 3 of the 4 studies where these markers were analyzed. C-reactive protein (CRP) was significantly higher (p < 0.05) in the control group of 2 of the 13 studies where this marker was analyzed. The delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) gave mixed results. Interleukin 6 (IL-6) showed improvements with supplementation, but tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) displayed no differences. The consumption of n-3 PUFAs improved some indicators of oxidative stress such as reduced glutathione (GSH)/oxidized glutathione (GSSG) ratio. Additional evidence is needed to establish clear recommendations regarding the dose and length of n-3 PUFA supplements. These may benefit the post-exercise inflammatory response, mitigate muscle damage, and decrease oxidative stress caused by exercise. However, studies did not evaluate omega-3 status at baseline or following supplementation and therefore the observations must be treated with caution.

Effects of Official Chess Competition on Salivary Cortisol and Mood Swings in Adolescent Girls: A Win-Loss Approach.

The current study examined the effects of official chess competition on salivary cortisol and mood swings in adolescent girls. Fourteen girl competitive chess players participated in the 5-day Swiss chess tournament held in nine heavy and light rounds. The tournament was performed at 9:00 a.m. (first, third, fifth, seventh, and ninth rounds) and 3:00 p.m. (second, fourth, sixth, and eighth rounds). Salivary cortisol and mood was measured before the tournament, before and after the second, fourth, sixth, and eighth rounds, and following the tournament (10 samples). The resting levels of salivary cortisol had considerably greater values on the first, second, third, and fourth competition days compared to 1 week before the competition (P = 0.001). The post-competition cortisol concentration was significantly higher on the second and third days than before the competition (P = 0.001). Winners had considerably higher levels of salivary cortisol compared to losers (P = 0.001). There was a significant increase in total mode disturbance (P = 0.001), anger (P = 0.009), and tension (P = 0.045) following heavy rounds (second and third day) compared to the values before the competition. At the same time, the Scores of vigor decreased significantly (P = 0.001). The findings of the present study showed participating in the official chess competition increased salivary cortisol and caused negative alterations in mood components associated with the difficulty and outcome of the match, indicating the psychological stress. Hence, psychological interventions can be used for psychological recovery of competitive chess players after the competition.

Voluntary wheel running from early adolescence reduces disease progression, and anxiety- and depression-related symptoms in an adult male mouse model of rheumatoid arthritis.

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a multifactorial autoimmune disease that progressively destroys synovial joints and leads to chronic systemic inflammation. This autoimmune disorder is associated with increased anxiety- and depression-related symptoms, which reduces quality of life. Clinical and experimental evidence suggests that higher physical activity from early adolescence may prevent chronic diseases and reduce the risk of mental health problems in adulthood. This study aimed to assess whether voluntary wheel running from early adolescence can decrease clinical symptoms, anxiety- and depression-related behaviors in adult mice with rheumatoid arthritis. Adolescent male mice were exposed to voluntary wheel running until adulthood and got collagen-induced arthritis. We measured body weight, the thickness of the hind paw and knee joint (clinical signs), anxiety- and depression-related behaviors, serum testosterone, and cytokines (IFN-γ IL-1ß, IL-6, TNF-α, IL-10). The findings showed that collagen-induced arthritis resulted in anxious-like behavior, increased anhedonia, elevated IL-6, IL-1ß, TNF-α, and IFN-γ, and decreased testosterone levels in the serum of mice. However, no change was observed in behavioral despair. We found that higher physical activity from early adolescence significantly reduced the severity of clinical signs, anxiety- and anhedonia-like behaviors, and decreased behavioral despair in RA-induced mice. In addition, the running wheel exposure normalized RA-induced abnormalities in testosterone and inflammatory cytokines in mice. Altogether, this study suggests that higher physical activity from early adolescence may make mice less vulnerable or resistant to RA-induced clinical symptoms and anxiety- and depression-related behaviors by changing testosterone and inflammatory cytokines productions in adulthood.

Fluoxetine combined with swimming exercise synergistically reduces lipopolysaccharide-induced depressive-like behavior by normalizing the HPA axis and brain inflammation in mice.

Major depression disorder is a debilitating psychiatric disease affecting millions of people worldwide. This disorder is the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in high-income countries. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors such as fluoxetine are first-line drugs for treating depression-related disorders, but not all patients respond well to these antidepressants. This study aimed to evaluate whether fluoxetine combined with aerobic exercise can affect lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced depressive-like behavior, hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis dysregulation, and brain inflammation in mice. Male mice were exposed to fluoxetine, swimming exercise, or a combination of both and finally treated with LPS. We measured depression-related symptoms such as anhedonia, behavioral despair, weight gain, and food intake. Hormones (corticosterone and testosterone) and cytokines (IL-1ß, IL-6, TNF-α, IL-10) were also measured in serum and brain (hippocampus and prefrontal cortex), respectively. The findings indicated that LPS induced anhedonia and behavioral despair and increased corticosterone, hippocampal IL-1ß, TNF-α, and decreased testosterone and hippocampal IL-10 in mice. Fluoxetine and exercise separately reduced LPS-induced depressive-like behavior, while their combination synergistically reduced these symptoms in LPS-treated mice. We found fluoxetine alone increased food intake and body weight in LPS-treated mice. Fluoxetine and exercise combination reduced corticosterone, hippocampal TNF-α, and prefrontal IL-6 and TNF-α levels and increased testosterone and hippocampal and prefrontal IL-10 levels more effectively than fluoxetine alone in LPS-treated mice. This study suggests that swimming exercise combined with fluoxetine can affect depression-related behavior, HPA axis, and brain inflammation more effectively than when they are used separately.

Physical activity in a swimming pool attenuates memory impairment by reducing glutamate and inflammatory cytokines and increasing BDNF in the brain of mice with type 2 diabetes.

Type 2 diabetes is a risk factor for the development of cognitive impairment. Increasing evidence suggests that regular exercise is beneficial for the treatment of clinical symptoms in diabetic patients. The current study aimed to evaluate whether increasing physical activity through swimming training can reduce memory impairment in an animal model of type 2 diabetes. Diabetes and non-diabetes mice underwent swimming training for four weeks, and then working, spatial, and recognition memory were evaluated using three behavioral tests. Body weight, glucose, and insulin resistance were monitored. We also measured inflammatory cytokines (interleukin (IL)- 6, IL-1ß, and tumor-necrosis-factor (TNF)-α), an anti-inflammatory cytokine (IL-10), and brain-derived-neurotrophic-factor (BDNF), and glutamate levels in the hippocampus or prefrontal cortex of mice. The findings showed that diabetes increased body weight, glucose, and insulin resistance, impaired working, spatial and recognition memory, increased levels of IL-6, IL-1ß, TNF-α, and glutamate levels, and decreased BDNF in the hippocampus of diabetic mice. While higher physical activity was associated with reduced body weight, glucose, and insulin resistance, attenuated memory impairment, IL-6, IL-1ß, TNF-α, and glutamate, and increased BDNF levels in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex of diabetic mice. This study shows that swimming training can normalize body weight and glucose-insulin axis and reduce inflammation and glutamate in the hippocampus and enhance the neurotrophic system in both the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex of diabetic mice. This study also suggests that higher physical activity through swimming training can improve cognitive impairment in a mouse model of type 2 diabetes.

Aerobic exercise training reduces deep-frying oil-induced apoptosis of hippocampal tissue by reducing oxidative stress in male rats.

Deep-frying oil (DFO) contains high amounts of free radicals, and consuming foods prepared with this method causes damage to nervous tissue due to oxidative stress (OS). Since moderate-intensity aerobic exercise training (AT) reduces OS, the current search investigated the effects of AT on OS, apoptosis, and neurogenesis markers in the hippocampal tissue of DFO-fed rats. Eighteen Wistar male rats (200-280 gr) were randomly allocated to a control group fed with normal food (Con-ND), a control group receiving DFO (Con-DFO), and a group receiving DFO-aerobic exercise (EX-DFO) (n = 6 in each). DFO was gavaged for four weeks, five days a week, with a dose of 2 ml. AT included running on a treadmill for four weeks and five sessions per week (40 min per session). The expression of genes B-cell lymphoma 2 (BCL-2), Protein X associated with Bcl-2 (BAX), Caspase-3 (Casp-3), and Caspase-9 (Casp-9) was measured by PCR method. The ELISA method was used to calculate levels of Superoxide dismutase (SOD) and Catalase (CAT) activity, malondialdehyde (MDA), and Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF). Also, the expression of the proteins Cannabinoid receptor type 1(CB1), Cannabinoid receptor type2 (CB2), Glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), Neuronal nuclei (NeuN), and DNA fragmentation was evaluated by Immunohistochemical and TUNEL staining. DFO feeding led to a significant increase in apoptotic markers, such as BAX, Casp-3, and Casp-9 gene expression, and DNA fragmentation (p ≤ 0.05) while decreasing BDNF concentration SOD activity (p ≤ 0.05). AT significantly reduced the BAX, Casp-3, Casp-9, MDA, CB1, GFAP, and DNA fragmentation (p ≤ 0.05). In conclusion, AT can reduce the harmful effects of feeding with DFO on the hippocampal tissue.

Diazepam and exercise training combination synergistically reduces lipopolysaccharide-induced anxiety-like behavior and oxidative stress in the prefrontal cortex of mice.

Anxiety-related disorders are among the most important risks for global health, especially in recent years due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Benzodiazepines like diazepam are generally used to treat anxiety disorders, but the overall outcome is not always satisfactory. This is why psychiatrists encourage patients with anxiety to change their lifestyle habits to decrease the risk of anxiety recurrence. However, the effect of diazepam and exercise in combination is unknown. This study aimed to investigate the effect of diazepam alone or in combination with swimming exercise on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced anxiety-like behavior and oxidative stress in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex of mice. Mice were exposed to diazepam and swimming exercise alone or in combination with each other and then received LPS. We assessed anxiety-like behavior using open field and light-dark box and measured oxidative markers including glutathione (GSH), malondialdehyde (MDA), and glutathione disulfide (GSSG) in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex. The findings showed that LPS increased anxiety-related symptoms and oxidative stress by decreasing GSH and increasing MDA and GSSG levels in the prefrontal cortex but not in the hippocampus. Although diazepam alone did not reduce anxiety-like behavior and oxidative stress, it in combination with exercise significantly decreased anxiety-like behavior and oxidative stress in the prefrontal cortex of LPS-treated mice. This drug and exercise combination also displayed a more effective effect in comparison with exercise alone. Overall, this study suggests that diazepam in combination with swimming exercise has higher efficacy on anxiety-like behavior and oxidative stress than when they are used alone.

Effects of resistance training and nigella sativa on type 2 diabetes: implications for metabolic markers, low-grade inflammation and liver enzyme production.

CONTEXT: Proper nutrition and exercise are effective strategies to improve overall metabolic health in diabetic patients. OBJECTIVE: This study evaluated the effects of Nigella sativa (NS) supplementation during resistance training (RT) on some biochemical variables in type 2 diabetes patients. METHODS: Forty patients were assigned to groups: RT + NS (RN), NS, RT + placebo (RP), and control (CO). RT was performed and NS was consumed for 8 weeks. Blood samples were collected at rest immediately before and after the 8 week intervention. RESULTS: RT or NS by themselves reduced HOMA-IR, insulin, glucose, TG, TC, LDL, ESR, CRP, AST, ALT and ALP, and increased HDL and HOMA-S. The combination of RT and NS, rather than each intervention alone, had significant effects on reduction of HOMA-IR, insulin, ESR and CRP as well as increases in HDL, HOMA-ß/S. CONCLUSION: RT combined with NS is sometimes a better strategy compared to single interventions for improving diabetes related biomarkers in type 2 diabetic patients.

Effect of resistance training with and without vitamin D calcium chitosan nanoparticle supplements on apoptosis markers in ovariectomized rats: An experimental study.

Background: Hormone therapy is one of the most effective treatments for menopausal disorders, but it may increase the risk of breast cancer, coronary heart disease, and pulmonary embolism. Objective: The present study investigated the effect of resistance training with and without vitamin D calcium(Ca + + ) chitosan nanoparticles on apoptosis markers in ovariectomized rats. Materials and Methods: 42 female Wistar rats were divided into 7 groups (n = 6/each). One group was assigned as the healthy controls to show the induction of menopause. The other 6 groups comprised ovariectomized (OVX) animals including: 1) vitamin D + calcium + chitosan + resistance training, 2) saline + estrogen + resistance training, 3) saline + resistance training, 4) vitamin D + calcium + chitosan, 5) saline + estrogen, and 6) OVX + control. 48 hr after the last intervention, the hippocampus tissue was extracted to measure the BCL-2-associated X (BAX), B-cell lymphoma 2 (BCL-2), and caspase-3 gene expression as well as the percentage of dead cells. Results: OVX rats demonstrated increased BAX gene expression, ratio of BAX gene expression to BCL-2, caspase-3 gene expression, and percentage of dead cells of hippocampal tissue, but decreased BCL-2 gene expression. Resistance training and vitamin D Ca + + chitosan nanoparticle supplements seemed to reverse these changes. Conclusion: The combination of resistance training and vitamin D Ca + + chitosan nanoparticle supplements may be considered a non-pharmacological treatment for OVX-induced apoptosis.

The effects of aerobic exercise training with octopamine supplementation on cardiomyocyte apoptosis induced by deep-frying oil: The role of caspase and procaspase 3.

BACKGROUND AND AIM: Clinicians who understand how the body responds to exercise, how aerobic training enhances cardiovascular fitness and the benefits and essentials of prescribing aerobic exercise can effectively encourage patients to be active. Deep-frying is a standard cooking method accompanied by the production of carcinogenesis substances such as acrolein. Acrolein is a toxic byproduct of lipid peroxidation involved in the development of pulmonary, cardiac, and neurodegenerative diseases. This study aimed to explore the effect of aerobic exercise (E.X.E.), and octopamine (OCT) on caspase three expression levels in the heart tissue of rats were fed deep-frying oil (D.F.O.). METHODS: 30 male Wistar rats were divided into 5 groups (n = 6 in each) including (1) control (CO), (2) deep-frying oil (DFO), (3) deep-frying oil + exercise (DFO + EXE), (4) deep-frying oil + octopamine (DFO + OCT), and (5) deep-frying oil + exercise + octopamine (DFO + EXE + OCT). The apoptotic effects of D.F.O. in heart tissue were examined by TUNEL assay. Masson's trichrome stain was used to study cardiomyocytic fibers. Moreover, caspase three gene expression in all groups was evaluated using quantitative real-time PCR and the Western blot method. RESULTS: Data showed a significant increase in apoptotic cells in the D.F.O. group (P < 0.05). In Masson's Trichrome stain analysis, more cardiomyocytic fibers degradation and lymphocytic aggregation cells in the DFO + EXE + OCT group significantly improve this degradation. Also, the expression level of caspase 3 was significantly decreased in the DFO + EXE + OCT group (P < 0.05). CONCLUSION: According to the result of the current study, it can be assumed that D.F.O. can lead to programmed cell death via the activation of caspases in heart tissue. However, it seems that aerobic exercise with octopamine supplementation improves heart tissue function by inhibiting the expression of caspase 3 and pro-caspase 3, leading to a significantly decreased apoptosis in cardiomyocytes of DFO-treated models.

Effects of resistance training, palm pollen grain extracts, and testosterone injection on luteinizing hormone receptors, claudin-1, cingulin, and zonula occludens in the prostate tissues of adult male rats.

The present study aimed to investigate the effects of resistance training, Phoenix dactylifera extract, and testosterone enanthate injection on luteinizing hormone receptor, claudin-1, cingulin, and zonula occludens in the prostate tissues of adult rats. 30 male rats were divided into six groups: (1) control, (2) resistance training, (3) Phoenix dactylifera extract, (4) testosterone enanthate, (5) resistance training+Phoenix dactylifera extract, and (6) resistance training + testosterone enanthate. After completing the treatments and resistance training, all rats were sacrificed via anaesthesia. The results showed that resistance training, Phoenix dactylifera, and testosterone enanthate significantly increased the luteinizing hormone receptor, claudin-1, cingulin, and zonula occludens gene expression levels in the prostate. The resistance training treatment, along with Phoenix dactylifera + testosterone enanthate, exerted synergic effects on the prostate luteinizing hormone receptor levels and claudin-1 gene expression. In conclusion, Phoenix dactylifera, as a natural compound with fewer side effects than testosterone injection, can be used to enhance athletic performance. Besides, considering the potential benefits of Phoenix dactylifera, it can be considered in the treatment of testosterone deficiency; however, further research is needed.

Elastic resistance training is more effective than vitamin D3 supplementation in reducing oxidative stress and strengthen antioxidant enzymes in healthy men.

OBJECTIVE: Today, reducing oxidative stress and improving the antioxidant system with antioxidant supplements along with exercise training has received a lot of attention. Vitamin D plays a very important role in general health and reducing oxidative stress. The aim of this study was to examine the effect of vitamin D3 supplements during elastic-band resistance training (EBT) on oxidative stress and antioxidant indices in healthy men. METHODS: Forty healthy men (Serum: 20 ≤ 25 (OH) D ≤ 25 ng/mL) voluntarily participated in the current study and randomly were assigned to EBT-vitamin D3 (ED, n = 10), EBT-placebo (EP, n = 10), vitamin D3 (VD, n = 10), and control (Con, n = 10). EBT was performed three times per week on non-consecutive days for eight weeks, in seven exercises. The subjects in the ED, VD, and EP consumed 50,000 IU vitamin D3 or placebo once every 2 weeks. Ten ccs blood samples were collected before and after exercise training and the total antioxidant capacity (TAC), superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPX), and creatine kinase (CK) activities were measured in the plasma. Malondialdehyde (MDA), as the lipid peroxidation index, and 25(OH) D were measured in the plasma. RESULTS: We found that there was a significant difference between ED with VD (p = 0.011) and Con (p = 0.022) for MDA. A significant difference was also seen for SOD in ED with VD (p = 0.024) and Con (p = 0.038) and TAC in ED with VD (p = 0.020) and Con (p = 0.030), and GPX in ED with VD (p = 0.040) and Con (p = 0.010). While there were no significant differences between ED and EP in all mentioned variables (p > 0.05). CONCLUSION: Finally, it can be said that elastic resistance training improved antioxidant defence. However, vitamin D3 supplementation during resistance elastic training has no synergistic effect on attenuating oxidative stress indices.

Mental Health Benefits of Exercise and Genistein in Elderly Rats.

Elderly is a part of life that is associated with physical and mental disorders. The present study aimed to investigate the effect of 8 weeks of high-intensity interval training (HIIT) along with genistein (Ge) on memory, anxiety, physical persistence and aerobic power in elderly rats. Forty elderly rats were randomly assigned to five groups of eight rats including 1) control (C), 2) sham (Sh), 3) HIIT, 4) HIIT+Ge, and 5)Ge. During 8-week groups 3 and 4 performed HIIT for three sessions per week and groups 4 and 5 received 60 mg/kg/day Ge peritoneally. Physical persistence (by forced swimming test), memory (by shuttle box and Y maze tests), anxiety (by elevated plus-maze test) and aerobic power (by exhaustive running on treadmill) were measured. HIIT, Ge, and HIIT+Ge significantly increased physical persistence and memory (P ≤0.05), HIIT and HIIT+Ge significantly decrease anxiety and increased aerobic power (P ≤0.05) and HIIT+Ge had higher effect on the decrease of anxiety and increase of memory compared to HIIT and Ge (P≤0.05). Although HIIT and Ge alone can enhance physical persistence, memory and anxiety in elderly rats nevertheless it seems that HIIT simultaneously with Ge has more favorable mental health benefits compared to HIIT and Ge alone.

The Effect of Resistance Training and Berberine Chloride on the Apoptosis-related Unfolded Protein Response Signaling Pathway in the Hippocampus of Diazinon-poisoned Rats.

INTRODUCTION: Diazinon is one of the most widely-used organophosphate pesticides in the world. This toxin enters the body in various ways and induces oxidative stress in various tissues. It has been proved that activation of Unfolded Protein Response (UPR) under oxidative stress is a steady mechanism for maintaining cell function and survival. Therefore, the present study aimed to review the effect of Resistance Training (RT) and Berberine Chloride (BC) on the apoptosis-related UPR signaling pathway in the hippocampus of diazinon-poisoned rats. METHODS: In this experimental study, 40 male Wistar rats weighing 250 ±50 g were randomly divided into eight groups of five rats of 1) diazinon + 2 mg/kg BC + RT, 2) diazinon + 15 mg/kg BC + RT, 3) diazinon, 4) diazinon + RT, 5) diazinon + 2 mg/kg BC, 6) diazinon + 15 mg/kg BC, 7) healthy control, and 8) sham. The groups were treated for 5 weeks. At the end of the fifth week, ATF-4, ATF-6, and CHOP gene expression in hippocampus tissue were measured by quantitative real-time RT-PCR. RESULTS: Diazinon significantly increased the expression of ATF-4, ATF-6, and CHOP in the hippocampus tissue of rats. Administrating 15 mg/kg BC with RT significantly decreased these genes, indicating a decrease in the rate of apoptosis in the hippocampus. CONCLUSION: This study showed that RT and BC have a protective effect against diazinon-induced toxicity in the hippocampus.

Forecast of ameliorating effect of dietary flavonol consumption in white tea with or without aerobic training on type 2 diabetes (T2D) in females.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Diabetes Mellitus (D.M.) is a chronic metabolic disease characterized by hyperglycemia due to insufficient or inefficient insulin secretory response that has become a widespread epidemic primarily due to the increasing prevalence and incidence of type 2 diabetes. Phytochemicals such as flavonoids and regular physical activity have recently attracted attention to developing new anti-diabetic drugs or alternative therapy to control diabetes. The aim of this study was to compare effects of dietary Flavonol consumption in white tea, with or without aerobic training, among patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus as a randomized trial. METHODS: 49 women with T2D were randomly assigned into groups including control, white tea, aerobic training, and aerobic training + white tea. The interventions were carried out for six months. Weight, Body Mass Index (BMI), body Fat, peak oxygen consumption (VO2Max), and Blood Pressure were evaluated at both the first and last days of the research period. Blood samples were withdrawn on the same days via venipuncture to test blood glucose, insulin, low-density lipoprotein (LDL), high-density lipoprotein (HDL), cholesterol, and triglycerides (T.G.). RESULTS: Characteristics analysis showed significant improvements in treated groups. In addition, glucose, insulin, LDL, Cholesterol, and T.G. were significantly reduced while HDL was remarkably increased in treated groups compared to pre-experiment values or the diabetic control group. CONCLUSION: Collectively, white tea combined with aerobic training favorably affects glycemic parameters, lipid profile, blood pressure, and VO2Max in six months in women with T2D. Registered under Clinical Trials.gov Identifier no. NCT00123456.

Swimming exercise decreases depression-like behaviour and inflammatory cytokines in a mouse model of type 2 diabetes.

NEW FINDINGS: What is the central question of this study? Can swimming exercise decrease depression-like behaviour and inflammation in type 2 diabetic mice? What is the main finding and its importance? Swimming exercise decreased depression-like behaviour by reducing inflammation in type 2 diabetic mice. Swimming exercise might be useful for the treatment of depression-related disorders in patients with type 2 diabetes. ABSTRACT: Clinical and experimental studies have shown that type 2 diabetes is associated with depression-related disorders. Inflammation has been identified as a common mechanism in both type 2 diabetes and depression. Several studies have suggested that swimming exercise might be able to reduce depression-related symptoms. The present study aimed to explore whether swimming exercise can decrease depression-like behaviour in type 2 diabetic mice. To induce type 2 diabetes, male C57BL6 mice were treated with a high-fat diet and streptozocin. Type 2 diabetic animals were subjected to swimming exercise for 4 weeks. Then, depression-like behaviours were evaluated by sucrose preference, novelty-suppressed feeding, social interaction and tail suspension tests. We also measured levels of glucose, insulin and pro-inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-1ß and tumour necrosis factor-α in the serum of animals. The results indicated that type 2 diabetes significantly increased anhedonia- and depression-like behaviours in mice. We also found significant increases in glucose, insulin and inflammatory cytokines in diabetic mice. Moreover, swimming exercise reduced anhedonia- and depression-like behaviour in type 2 diabetic mice. Swimming exercise also decreased glucose and inflammatory cytokines in the serum of mice with type 2 diabetes. Collectively, this study demonstrates that swimming exercise decreased depression-like behaviour by reducing inflammation in type 2 diabetic mice. Further clinical studies are needed to validate these findings in patients with type 2 diabetes.

Swimming exercise attenuates anxiety-like behavior by reducing brain oxidative stress in type 2 diabetic mice.

Anxiety-related behaviors are among the most prevalent psychiatric disorders in patients with type 2 diabetes (T2D). The protective effect of exercise on neuropsychiatric disorders has been documented. However, there are no studies that examined whether swimming exercise can decrease anxiety-like symptoms in type 2 diabetes. We investigated the effects of swimming exercise on body weight, anxiety-like behavior, glucose and insulin levels, and brain oxidative stress in male C57BL/6 mice. T2D-induced mice were subjected to swimming exercise, then anxiety-like behaviors were measured by the open field, light-dark box, and elevated plus-maze tests. Glucose and insulin levels were measure in serum, and antioxidant/oxidative markers including glutathione (GSH), malondialdehyde (MDA), and glutathione disulfide (GSSG) were measured in the brain. Our findings showed that T2D increased body weight, anxiety-like symptoms, glucose and insulin resistance, and oxidative stress by increasing MDA and GSSG levels in the brain of mice. Interestingly, swimming exercise reversed these parameters in diabetic mice. Our findings clearly indicate that there is a protective impact of swimming exercise on anxiety-like behavior by reducing insulin resistance and brain oxidative stress in mice with type 2 diabetes. Further studies are needed to validate these findings in humans.

The effect of regular resistance exercise, vitamin D, and calcium supplements on the gastrocnemius muscle in rats in the post-menopausal period: An experimental study.

BACKGROUND: Menopause is the natural termination of menstruation which affects the quality and important aspects of women's life. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the effect of regular resistance training (Ex) with vitamin D (Vit. D) and calcium (Ca) supplements in the postmenopausal period on muscle tissue in rats. MATERIALS AND METHODS: In this experimental study, 72 female Wistar rats (8-10-wk old) were randomly divided into control, placebo, Vit. D, Ca, Ex, Ca + Vit. D, Ex + Ca, Ex + Vit. D, and Ex + Ca + Vit. D groups. Control and placebo groups were fed with a standard diet and sesame oil, respectively. Two month after the ovariectomy, Ex, Ca (35 mg/kg), and Vit. D (10000 IU) were administred in all groups except the control. The number of muscle and inflammatory cells, fiber diameter, endomysium thickness, and degenerative collagen fiber area were assessed through hematoxylin-eosin staining. RESULTS: Muscle cell number was increased in the Ex + Vit. D + Ca, Vit. D + Ex, and Vit. D groups compared to the control group; also, inflammatory cell number showed significant increase in the Ex + Vit. D + Ca (12 ± 5.46), Vit. D + Ex (14 ± 3.25), Ex (13 ± 4.08), Vit. D (11 ± 3.26), Ca + Vit. D (10 ± 1.01), and Ca + Ex (9 ± 2.87) groups. Muscle fiber diameter in the Ex + Vit. D + Ca and Vit. D + Ex groups was higher than the other groups. Endomysium thickness was significantly decreased in the Ex + Vit. D + Ca and Vit. D + Ex groups compared to the control and placebo groups (p < 0.001). Degenerative collagen fiber area showed a significant increase in the Ex + Vit. D + Ca and Vit. D + Ex groups (p ≤ 0.001) comparison with the control group. CONCLUSION: Regular resistance exercise, Vit. D, and Ca supplements can improve muscle morphological features in the postmenopausal period.

Effect of regular resistance exercise, vitamin D, and calcium supplements on the bone mineral content and density in postmenopausal model of rats: An experimental study.

BACKGROUND: Postmenopausal osteoporosis progressively occurs due to alteration in the estrogen level during the menopause period, and subsequently elevates the risk of fractures. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the effect of regular resistance exercise, vitamin D, and calcium supplements on bone mineral content and density, postmenopausal rats used. MATERIALS AND METHODS: In this experimental study, 72 female Sprague-Dawley rats (8-10 wk: 250 ± 15 gr) were ovariectomized and randomly divided into nine groups (n = 8/each): control, placebo, exercise (EX), exercise with vitamin D supplement (EX + D), exercise with calcium (EX + Ca), exercise with calcium and vitamin D (EX + Ca + D), vitamin D administration (D), calcium administration (Ca), and calcium and vitamin D (Ca + D) groups. Finally, the tail, hip, and lumbar bone mineral content, bone mineral density, bone thickness, and bone cells were evaluated in each group. RESULTS: The tail, hip, and lumbar bone mineral density was increased significantly in the EX + Vit D group compared to the control group (p = 0.004, p = 0.007, p = 0.003, respectively). However, there were no significant changes in the bone mineral content of the hips and lumbar among the groups. Besides, bone thickness in the Ex + Vit D group was more than the other groups (p = 0.02). The number of osteoclast cells were decreased in the Ca + Vit D, Ex + Ca, Ex + Vit D, and Ex + Vit D + Ca groups compared to the control group. Osteocyte numbers were increased only in the Ex + Vit D group. CONCLUSION: Resistance exercise in combination with vitamin D and calcium have a positive effect on the bone mineral density and bone mineral content and might be able to prevent or delay the osteoporosis among elderly women. However, additional researches are needed to assess the molecular pathways of this process.