Novel therapeutic strategy for obesity through the gut microbiota-brain axis: A review article.

Background: The interaction between commensal bacteria and the host is essential for health and the gut microbiota-brain axis plays a vital role in this regard. Obesity as a medical problem not only affect the health of the individuals, but also the economic and social aspects of communities. The presence of any dysbiosis in the composition of the gut microbiota disrupts in the gut microbiota-brain axis, which in turn leads to an increase in appetite and then obesity. Because common treatments for obesity have several drawbacks, the use of microbiota-based therapy in addition to treatment and prevention of obesity can have other numerous benefits for the individual. In this review, we intend to investigate the relationship between obesity and the gut microbiota-brain axis as well as novel treatment strategies based on this axis with an emphasis on gut microbiota.

Exploring the Potential of Montmorillonite as an Antiproliferative Nanoagent against MDA-MB-231 and MCF-7 Human Breast Cancer Cells.

Unlike MCF-7 cells, MDA-MB-231 cells are unresponsive to hormone therapy and often show resistance to chemotherapy and radiotherapy. Here, the antiproliferative effect of biocompatible montmorillonite (Mt) nanosheets on MDA-MB-231 and MCF-7 human breast cancer cells was evaluated by MTT assay, flow cytometry, and qRT-PCR. The results showed that the Mt IC50 for MDA-MB-231 and MCF-7 cells in a fetal bovine serum (FBS)-free medium was ~50 and ~200 µg/mL, and in 10% FBS medium ~400 and ~2000 µg/mL, respectively. Mt caused apoptosis in both cells by regulating related genes including Cas-3, P53, and P62 in MDA-MB-231 cells and Bcl-2, Cas-8, Cas-9, P53, and P62 in MCF-7 cells. Also, Mt arrested MCF-7 cells in the G0/G1 phase by altering Cyclin-D1 and P21 expression, and caused sub-G1 arrest and necrosis in both cells, possibly through damaging the mitochondria. However, fewer gene expression changes and more sub-G1 arrest and necrosis were observed in MDA-MB-231 cells, confirming the higher vulnerability of MDA-MB-231 cells to Mt. Furthermore, MDA-MB-231 cells appeared to be much more vulnerable to Mt compared to other cell types, including normal lung fibroblast (MRC-5), colon cancer (HT-29), and liver cancer (HepG2) cells. The higher vulnerability of MDA-MB-231 cells to Mt was inferred to be due to their higher proliferation rate. Notably, Mt cytotoxicity was highly dependent on both the Mt concentration and serum level, which favors Mt for the local treatment of MDA-MB-231 cells. Based on these results, Mt can be considered as an antiproliferative nanoagent against MDA-MB-231 cells and may be useful in the development of local nanoparticle-based therapies.

Immunotherapies targeting tumor vasculature: challenges and opportunities.

Angiogenesis is a hallmark of cancer biology, and neoadjuvant therapies targeting either tumor vasculature or VEGF signaling have been developed to treat solid malignant tumors. However, these therapies induce complete vascular depletion leading to hypoxic niche, drug resistance, and tumor recurrence rate or leading to impaired delivery of chemo drugs and immune cell infiltration at the tumor site. Achieving a balance between oxygenation and tumor growth inhibition requires determining vascular normalization after treatment with a low dose of antiangiogenic agents. However, monotherapy within the approved antiangiogenic agents' benefits only some tumors and their efficacy improvement could be achieved using immunotherapy and emerging nanocarriers as a clinical tool to optimize subsequent therapeutic regimens and reduce the need for a high dosage of chemo agents. More importantly, combined immunotherapies and nano-based delivery systems can prolong the normalization window while providing the advantages to address the current treatment challenges within antiangiogenic agents. This review summarizes the approved therapies targeting tumor angiogenesis, highlights the challenges and limitations of current therapies, and discusses how vascular normalization, immunotherapies, and nanomedicine could introduce the theranostic potentials to improve tumor management in future clinical settings.

Experimental solubility of aripiprazole in supercritical carbon dioxide and modeling.

The solubility of compounds in supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-[Formula: see text]) has found crucial significance in the fabrication of micro/nano-scaled drugs. In this research, the solubility of Aripiprazole was measured in SC-[Formula: see text] at various temperatures (308-338 K) and pressures (12-30 MPa). Moreover, the experimental solubility results were correlated with several semi-empirical models (Chrastil, Bartle et al., Kumar & Johnston, Menden-Santiago & Teja, Sodeifian et al., and Jouyban et al.) as well as the modified Wilson model. The molar fraction of the drug in SC-[Formula: see text] varied in the range of [Formula: see text] to [Formula: see text]. The solubility highly depended on the operating pressure and temperature. The Chrastil (0.994), Jouyban et al. (0.993) and Sodeifian et al. (0.992) models showed the highest consistency with the obtained values. Furthermore, self-consistency tests were performed on the solubility of Aripiprazole in SC-[Formula: see text]. The approximate total enthalpy ([Formula: see text]), vaporization enthalpy ([Formula: see text]), and solubility enthalpy ([Formula: see text]) were also calculated.

Multidrug-Resistant Pathogens in Burn Wound, Prevention, Diagnosis, and Therapeutic Approaches (Conventional Antimicrobials and Nanoparticles).

Multidrug-resistant pathogens are one of the common causes of death in burn patients and have a high risk of nosocomial infections, especially pneumonia, urinary tract infections, and cellulitis. The role of prolonged hospitalization and empirical antibiotics administration in developing multidrug-resistant pathogens is undeniable. In the early days of admitting burn patients, Gram-positive bacteria were the dominant isolates with a more sensitive antibiotic pattern. However, the emergence of Gram-negative bacteria that are more resistant later occurs. Trustworthy guideline administration in burn wards is one of the strategies to prevent multidrug-resistant pathogens. Also, a multidisciplinary therapeutic approach is an effective way to avoid antibiotic resistance that involves infectious disease specialists, pharmacists, and burn surgeons. However, the emerging resistance to conventional antimicrobial approaches (such as systemic antibiotic exposure, traditional wound dressing, and topical antibiotic ointments) among burn patients has challenged the treatment of multidrug-resistant infections, and using nanoparticles is a suitable alternative. In this review article, we will discuss different aspects of multidrug-resistant pathogens in burn wounds, emphasizing the full role of these pathogens in burn wounds and discussing the application of nanotechnology in dealing with them. Also, some advances in various types of nanomaterials, including metallic nanoparticles, liposomes, hydrogels, carbon quantum dots, and solid lipid nanoparticles in burn wound healing, will be explained.

Multifunctional nanostructures: Intelligent design to overcome biological barriers.

Over the past three decades, nanoscience has offered a unique solution for reducing the systemic toxicity of chemotherapy drugs and for increasing drug therapeutic efficiency. However, the poor accumulation and pharmacokinetics of nanoparticles are some of the key reasons for their slow translation into the clinic. The is intimately linked to the non-biological nature of nanoparticles and the aberrant features of solid cancer, which together significantly compromise nanoparticle delivery. New findings on the unique properties of tumors and their interactions with nanoparticles and the human body suggest that, contrary to what was long-believed, tumor features may be more mirage than miracle, as the enhanced permeability and retention based efficacy is estimated to be as low as 1%. In this review, we highlight the current barriers and available solutions to pave the way for approved nanoformulations. Furthermore, we aim to discuss the main solutions to solve inefficient drug delivery with the use of nanobioengineering of nanocarriers and the tumor environment. Finally, we will discuss the suggested strategies to overcome two or more biological barriers with one nanocarrier. The variety of design formats, applications and implications of each of these methods will also be evaluated.

Bioceramics/Electrospun Polymeric Nanofibrous and Carbon Nanofibrous Scaffolds for Bone Tissue Engineering Applications.

Bone tissue engineering integrates biomaterials, cells, and bioactive agents to propose sophisticated treatment options over conventional choices. Scaffolds have central roles in this scenario, and precisely designed and fabricated structures with the highest similarity to bone tissue have shown promising outcomes. On the other hand, using nanotechnology and nanomaterials as the enabling options confers fascinating properties to the scaffolds, such as precisely tailoring the physicochemical features and better interactions with cells and surrounding tissues. Among different nanomaterials, polymeric nanofibers and carbon nanofibers have attracted significant attention due to their similarity to bone extracellular matrix (ECM) and high surface-to-volume ratio. Moreover, bone ECM is a biocomposite of collagen fibers and hydroxyapatite crystals; accordingly, researchers have tried to mimic this biocomposite using the mineralization of various polymeric and carbon nanofibers and have shown that the mineralized nanofibers are promising structures to augment the bone healing process in the tissue engineering scenario. In this paper, we reviewed the bone structure, bone defects/fracture healing process, and various structures/cells/growth factors applicable to bone tissue engineering applications. Then, we highlighted the mineralized polymeric and carbon nanofibers and their fabrication methods.

Critical parameters to translate gold nanoparticles as radiosensitizing agents into the clinic.

Radiotherapy is an inevitable choice for cancer treatment that is applied as combinatorial therapy along with surgery and chemotherapy. Nevertheless, radiotherapy at high doses kills normal and tumor cells at the same time. In addition, some tumor cells are resistant to radiotherapy. Recently, many researchers have focused on high-Z nanomaterials as radiosensitizers for radiotherapy. Among them, gold nanoparticles (GNPs) have shown remarkable potential due to their promising physical, chemical, and biological properties. Although few clinical trial studies have been performed on drug delivery and photosensitization with lasers, GNPs have not yet received Food and Drug Administration approval for use in radiotherapy. The sensitization effects of GNPs are dependent on their concentration in cells and x-ray energy deposition during radiotherapy. Notably, some limitations related to the properties of the GNPs, including their size, shape, surface charge, and ligands, and the radiation source energy should be resolved. At the first, this review focuses on some of the challenges of using GNPs as radiosensitizers and some biases among in vitro/in vivo, Monte Carlo, and clinical studies. Then, we discuss the challenges in the clinical translation of GNPs as radiosensitizers for radiotherapy and proposes feasible solutions. And finally, we suggest that certain areas be considered in future research. This article is categorized under: Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > NA.

[Which anticoagulant or antiplatelet treatment for cancer patients with thrombocytopenia ?] / Quel anticoagulant ou antiagrégant chez le patient oncologique présentant une thrombocytopénie ?

Cancer patients have an increased thrombotic risk of arterial and venous thrombosis. Thrombocytopenia, particularly with anticoagulation, exposes the patient to an increased risk of bleeding but does not reduce the risk of recurrent thrombosis. When platelets are < 50 × 109/l, the strategy regarding anticoagulation must be reassessed. Based on the thrombotic and bleeding risks as well as the expected duration of thrombocytopenia, management options include full-dose treatment with platelet transfusion, reduced-dose anticoagulation or withholding antithrombotic therapy. Aspirin treatment appears to be a reasonable choice for thrombocytopenic (> 30 × 109/l) patients with acute coronary syndrome. This paper will review the guidelines on anticoagulation and antiplatelet therapy in thrombocytopenic cancer patients.

Les patients avec un cancer ont un risque thrombotique artériel et veineux accru. En cas de thrombocytopénie et traitement anticoagulant (ou antiagrégant), ils sont exposés à un risque hémorragique augmenté mais conservent un risque thrombotique élevé. L'évaluation de l'anticoagulation s'impose pour des thrombocytes < 50 × 109/l. En fonction des risques thrombotique et hémorragique et de la durée de la thrombocytopénie, les options sont la poursuite de l'anticoagulation, le recours aux transfusions plaquettaires, la réduction de la dose ou son interruption. Un traitement par aspirine en cas de syndrome coronarien aigu est raisonnable pour des thrombocytes > 30 × 109/l. Cet article propose une revue des recommandations concernant les traitements anticoagulants ou antiagrégants en cas de thrombocytopénie chez les patients oncologiques.

Fabrication, characterization and biological properties evaluation of bioactive scaffold based on mineralized carbon nanofibers.

Tissue engineering as an innovative approach aims to combine engineering, biomaterials and biomedicine to eliminate the drawbacks of conventional bone defect treatment. In the current study, we fabricated bioengineered electroactive and bioactive mineralized carbon nanofibers as the scaffold for bone tissue engineering applications. The scaffold was fabricated using the sol-gel method and thoroughly characterized by SEM imaging, EDX analysis and a 4-point probe. The results showed that the CNFs have a diameter of 200 ± 19 nm and electrical conductivity of 1.02 ± 0.12 S cm-1. The in vitro studies revealed that the synthesized CNFs were osteoactive and supported the mineral crystal deposition. The hemolysis study confirmed the hemocompatibility of the CNFs and cell viability/proliferation sassy using an MTT assay kit showed the proliferative activities of mineralized CNFs. In conclusion, this study revealed that the mineralized CNFs synthesized by the combination of sol-gel and electrospinning techniques were electroactive, osteoactive and biocompatible, which can be considered an effective bone tissue engineering scaffold.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Multifunctional plant virus nanoparticles: An emerging strategy for therapy of cancer.

Cancer therapy requires sophisticated treatment strategies to obtain the highest success. Nanotechnology is enabling, revolutionizing, and multidisciplinary concepts to improve conventional cancer treatment modalities. Nanomaterials have a central role in this scenario, explaining why various nanomaterials are currently being developed for cancer therapy. Viral nanoparticles (VNPs) have shown promising performance in cancer therapy due to their unique features. VNPs possess morphological homogeneity, ease of functionalization, biocompatibility, biodegradability, water solubility, and high absorption efficiency that are beneficial for cancer therapy applications. In the current review paper, we highlight state-of-the-art properties and potentials of plant viruses, strategies for multifunctional plant VNPs formulations, potential applications and challenges in VNPs-based cancer therapy, and finally practical solutions to bring potential cancer therapy one step closer to real applications. This article is categorized under: Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Nanomedicine for Oncologic Disease Nanotechnology Approaches to Biology > Nanoscale Systems in Biology Biology-Inspired Nanomaterials > Protein and Virus-Based Structures.

Antibacterial activity of green gold and silver nanoparticles using ginger root extract.

Recent studies demonstrated that the speed of synthesis, biocompatibility, and antimicrobial activity of gold (Au) and silver (Ag) metals is enhanced when biosynthesized in nano-sized particles. In the present study, Au- and Ag-based nanoparticles (NPs) were synthesized via a biological process using aqueous Ginger root extract and characterized by various spectroscopic methods. The NPs have hexagonal and spherical shapes. The average particle size for Au and Ag NPs was 20 and 15 nm, respectively. The dynamic light scattering (DLS) technique has shown that the zeta potential values of synthesized NPs were 4.8 and - 7.11 mv, respectively. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis of Ginger root extract revealed 25 compounds. The synthesized NPs showed significant activity against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia (E). coli in vitro, with IC50 and IC90 values for Au and Ag NPs, respectively, noted to be 7.5 and 7.3 µg/ml and 15 and 15.2 µg/ml for both bacterial strains. The protein leakage level was tremendous and morphological changes occurred in bacteria treated with biosynthesized NPs. These results suggest that the biosynthesized metallic NPs have the suitable potential for application as antibacterial agents with enhanced activities.

Bacterial Polyglucuronic Acid/Alginate/Carbon Nanofibers Hydrogel Nanocomposite as a Potential Scaffold for Bone Tissue Engineering.

3D nanocomposite scaffolds have attracted significant attention in bone tissue engineering applications. In the current study, we fabricated a 3D nanocomposite scaffold based on a bacterial polyglucuronic acid (PGU) and sodium alginate (Alg) composite with carbon nanofibers (CNFs) as the bone tissue engineering scaffold. The CNFs were obtained from electrospun polyacrylonitrile nanofibers through heat treatment. The fabricated CNFs were incorporated into a PGU/Alg polymeric solution, which was physically cross-linked using CaCl2 solution. The fabricated nanocomposites were characterized to evaluate the internal structure, porosity, swelling kinetics, hemocompatibility, and cytocompatibility. The characterizations indicated that the nanocomposites have a porous structure with interconnected pores architecture, proper water absorption, and retention characteristics. The in vitro studies revealed that the nanocomposites were hemocompatible with negligible hemolysis induction. The cell viability assessment showed that the nanocomposites were biocompatible and supported bone cell growth. These results indicated that the fabricated bacterial PGU/Alg/CNFs hydrogel nanocomposite exhibited appropriate properties and can be considered a new biomaterial for bone tissue engineering scaffolds.

Immune evader cancer stem cells direct the perspective approaches to cancer immunotherapy.

Exploration of tumor immunity leads to the development of immune checkpoint inhibitors and cell-based immunotherapies which improve the clinical outcomes in several tumor types. However, the poor clinical efficacy of these treatments observed for other tumors could be attributed to the inherent complex tumor microenvironment (TME), cellular heterogeneity, and stemness driven by cancer stem cells (CSCs). CSC-specific characteristics provide the bulk tumor surveillance and resistance to entire eradication upon conventional therapies. CSCs-immune cells crosstalk creates an immunosuppressive TME that reshapes the stemness in tumor cells, resulting in tumor formation and progression. Thus, identifying the immunological features of CSCs could introduce the therapeutic targets with powerful antitumor responses. In this review, we summarized the role of immune cells providing CSCs to evade tumor immunity, and then discussed the intrinsic mechanisms represented by CSCs to promote tumors' resistance to immunotherapies. Then, we outlined potent immunotherapeutic interventions followed by a perspective outlook on the use of nanomedicine-based drug delivery systems for controlled modulation of the immune system.

Synthesis, surface modifications, and biomedical applications of carbon nanofibers: Electrospun vs vapor-grown carbon nanofibers.

Engineered nanostructures are materials with promising properties, enabled by precise design and fabrication, as well as size-dependent effects. Biomedical applications of nanomaterials in disease-specific prevention, diagnosis, treatment, and recovery monitoring require precise, specific, and sophisticated approaches to yield effective and long-lasting favorable outcomes for patients. In this regard, carbon nanofibers (CNFs) have been indentified due to their interesting properties, such as good mechanical strength, high electrical conductivity, and desirable morphological features. Broadly speaking, CNFs can be categorized as vapor-grown carbon nanofibers (VGCNFs) and carbonized CNFs (e.g., electrospun CNFs), which have distinct microstructure, morphologies, and physicochemical properties. In addition to their physicochemical properties, VGCNFs and electrospun CNFs have distinct performances in biomedicine and have their own pros and cons. Indeed, several review papers in the literature have summarized and discussed the different types of CNFs and their performances in the industrial, energy, and composites areas. Crucially however, there is room for a comprehensive review paper dealing with CNFs from a biomedical point of view. The present work therefore, explored various types of CNFs, their fabrication and surface modification methods, and their applications in the different branches of biomedical engineering.

Modulation of LXR signaling altered the dynamic activity of human colon adenocarcinoma cancer stem cells in vitro.

BACKGROUND: The expansion and metastasis of colorectal cancers are closely associated with the dynamic growth of cancer stem cells (CSCs). This study aimed to explore the possible effect of LXR (a regulator of glycolysis and lipid hemostasis) in the tumorgenicity of human colorectal CD133 cells. METHODS: Human HT-29 CD133+ cells were enriched by MACS and incubated with LXR agonist (T0901317) and antagonist (SR9243) for 72 h. Cell survival was evaluated using MTT assay and flow cytometric analysis of Annexin-V. The proliferation rate was measured by monitoring Ki-67 positive cells using IF imaging. The modulation of LXR was studied by monitoring the activity of all factors related to ABC transporters using real-time PCR assay and western blotting. Protein levels of metabolic enzymes such as PFKFB3, GSK3ß, FASN, and SCD were also investigated upon treatment of CSCs with LXR modulators. The migration of CSCs was monitored after being exposed to LXR agonist using scratch and Transwell insert assays. The efflux capacity was measured using hypo-osmotic conditions. The intracellular content of reactive oxygen species was studied by DCFH-DA staining. RESULTS: Data showed incubation of CSCs with T0901317 and SR9243 reduced the viability of CD133 cells in a dose-dependent manner compared to the control group. The activation of LXR up-regulated the expression and protein levels of ABC transporters (ABCA1, ABCG5, and ABCG8) compared to the non-treated cells (p < 0.05). Despite these effects, LXR activation suppressed the proliferation, clonogenicity, and migration of CD133 cells, and increased hypo-osmotic fragility (p < 0.05). We also showed that SR9243 inhibited the proliferation and clonogenicity of CD133 cells through down-regulating metabolic enzymes PFKFB3, GSK3ß, FASN, and SCD as compared with the control cells (p < 0.05). Intracellular ROS levels were increased after the inhibition of LXR by SR9243 (p < 0.05). Calling attention, both T0901317 and SR9243 compounds induced apoptotic changes in cancer stem cells (p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: The regulation of LXR activity can be considered as a selective targeting of survival, metabolism, and migration in CSCs to control the tumorigenesis and metastasis in patients with advanced colorectal cancers.

Synthesis of Self-Targeted Carbon Dot with Ultrahigh Quantum Yield for Detection and Therapy of Cancer.

This study aims to engineer a new type of ultrahigh quantum yield carbon dots (CDs) from methotrexate (MTX-CDs) with self-targeting, imaging, and therapeutic effects on MDA-MB 231 breast cancer cells. CDs were synthesized via a straightforward thermal method using a methotrexate (MTX) drug source. The physicochemical characteristics of the prepared MTX-CDs were studied using Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), dynamic light scattering (DLS), X-ray powder diffraction (XRD), and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). TEM and DLS revealed which MTX-CDs have homogeneous spherical morphology with a smaller average size of 5.4 ± 2.2 nm, polydispersity index (PDI) of 0.533, and positive surface charge of around +3.93 mV. Results of FT-IR spectroscopy and high-resolution XPS indicated the presence of residues of MTX on CDs. Therefore, the synthesized MTX-CDs could be targeted and be taken up by FR-positive cell lines without the aid of additional targeting molecules. In vitro epifluorescence images demonstrated high-contrast cytoplasm biodistribution of MTX-CDs after 2 h of treatment. A much stronger fluorescent signal was detected in MDA-MB 231 compared to MCF 7, indicating their ability to precisely target FR. The highest cytotoxic and apoptotic effects were observed in MTX-CDs compared to free MTX obtained by the MTT assay, cell cycle arrest, and annexin V-FITC apoptosis techniques. Results revealed that the novel engineered MTX-CDs were capable of inducing apoptosis (70.2% apoptosis) at a lower concentration (3.2 µM) compared to free MTX, which was proved by annexin V and cell cycle. This work highlights the potential application of CDs for constructing an intelligent nanomedicine with integration of diagnostic, targeting, and therapeutic functions.

An optimal method for measuring biomarkers: colorimetric optical image processing for determination of creatinine concentration using silver nanoparticles.

Creatinine concentration is one of the important elements in the body for diagnosing kidney failure, muscular dystrophy, glomerular filtration rate, and diabetic nephropathy. The disadvantages of recently introduced analytical techniques, such as Jaffe's, spectroscopic, colorimetric, and chromatographic methods, for quantifying creatinine in urine involve toxicity, the high cost, interference, and the complexity of the design. In this paper, we designed and fabricated a new colorimetric assay for the measurement of creatinine concentration based on color differentiation generated by mixing different concentrations of creatinine with synthesized silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) coated with polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA). An isolated box is designed for the uniform optical imaging of solutions, the captured images are processed in real time, and the quantitative and qualitative results are displayed. For colorimetric processing, a variety of color systems, such as RGB (red, green, blue), CMYK (cyan, magenta, yellow, black), and grayscale (Gr), have been evaluated, indicating that the combination of green (G) and grayscale (Gr) provides the best results for this experiment. TEM analysis and spectroscopy were used to confirm the results of the experiment. Linear range and limit of detection (LOD) were obtained for AgNPs/PVP 0.03-1 mg/dl and 0.024 mg/dl and for AgNPs/PVA 0.01-1 mg/dl and 0.014 mg/dl, respectively, indicating the superiority of our proposed method over recently introduced methods. In this experiment, the detectable resolution with AgNPs/PVP is 40, while it is 71 with AgNPs/PVA. The designed system is simple to use, small in size, and cost-effective for measuring creatinine concentration, while it can be used as a portable system.

The Role of Circulating Tumor Cells in the Metastatic Cascade: Biology, Technical Challenges, and Clinical Relevance.

Metastases and cancer recurrence are the main causes of cancer death. Circulating Tumor Cells (CTCs) and disseminated tumor cells are the drivers of cancer cell dissemination. The assessment of CTCs' clinical role in early metastasis prediction, diagnosis, and treatment requires more information about their biology, their roles in cancer dormancy, and immune evasion as well as in therapy resistance. Indeed, CTC functional and biochemical phenotypes have been only partially characterized using murine metastasis models and liquid biopsy in human patients. CTC detection, characterization, and enumeration represent a promising tool for tailoring the management of each patient with cancer. The comprehensive understanding of CTCs will provide more opportunities to determine their clinical utility. This review provides much-needed insights into this dynamic field of translational cancer research.

Interactions Between Tumor Biology and Targeted Nanoplatforms for Imaging Applications.

Although considerable efforts have been conducted to diagnose, improve, and treat cancer in the past few decades, existing therapeutic options are insufficient, as mortality and morbidity rates remain high. Perhaps the best hope for substantial improvement lies in early detection. Recent advances in nanotechnology are expected to increase the current understanding of tumor biology, and will allow nanomaterials to be used for targeting and imaging both in vitro and in vivo experimental models. Owing to their intrinsic physicochemical characteristics, nanostructures (NSs) are valuable tools that have received much attention in nanoimaging. Consequently, rationally designed NSs have been successfully employed in cancer imaging for targeting cancer-specific or cancer-associated molecules and pathways. This review categorizes imaging and targeting approaches according to cancer type, and also highlights some new safe approaches involving membrane-coated nanoparticles, tumor cell-derived extracellular vesicles, circulating tumor cells, cell-free DNAs, and cancer stem cells in the hope of developing more precise targeting and multifunctional nanotechnology-based imaging probes in the future.