FRA1 is essential for the maintenance of the oncogenic phenotype induced by in vitro long-term arsenic exposure.

Arsenic induces oncogenic effects activating stress-related signalling pathways. This can result in the over-activation of the AP-1 protein, specifically its FRA1 component. FRA1 is a transcription factor frequently overexpressed in epithelial tumors, where it can regulate the expression of different target genes. Accordingly, FRA1 could play an essential role in the in vitro cell transformation induced by arsenic. FRA1 levels were monitored in MEF cells throughout their transformation stages during 40 weeks of long-term 2 µM arsenic exposure. Interestingly, the results show a progressive FRA1 overexpression with time (60-fold and 11-fold for mRNA and pFRA/non-pFRA1, respectively, at week 40), which may be responsible for the observed altered expression in the FRA1 downstream target genes Pten, Pdcd4, Tpm1, Tgfb1, Tgfb2, Zeb1, Zeb2, and Twist. The levels of MAPKs (ERK, p38, and JNK) and other known players upstream from FRA1 were assessed at equivalent time-points, and ERK, p38 and RAS were pinpointed as potential candidates involved in arsenic-induced FRA1 activation. Furthermore, FRA1 stable knockdown under chronic arsenic exposure settings elicits a remarkable impact on the features relative to the cells' oncogenic phenotype. Notably, FRA1 knockdown cells present a 30% diminished proliferation rate, a 50% lowered migration and invasion potential, a 50% reduction in senescence, and a 30-60% reduced tumorsphere-forming ability. This work is the first to demonstrate the important role of FRA1 in the development and aggressiveness of the in vitro transformed phenotype induced by long-term arsenic exposure.

Role of As3mt and Mth1 in the genotoxic and carcinogenic effects induced by long-term exposures to arsenic in MEF cells.

DNA damage plays a crucial role in the transforming potential of the human carcinogen arsenic. The arsenic biotransformation enzyme AS3MT is known to participate in the generation of ROS after arsenic exposure, whereas MTH1 sanitizes oxidized dNTP pools to prevent the incorporation of damaged bases into DNA. In this work, we sought to assess the role of these two enzymes in the genotoxic and carcinogenic effects of arsenic exposure. Thus, mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEF), transformed by chronic arsenite exposure, were monitored for DNA damage by the comet and the micronucleus assays at different time-of-exposure intervals lasting for 50 weeks. Results indicate that the oxidative and DNA damage of chronically exposed MEF cells increased time-dependently up to the point of transformation. As3mt expression followed a pattern like that of DNA damage, and its forced inhibition by shRNA technology before transformation resulted in a DNA damage decrease. On the other hand, Mth1 mRNA levels increased after the transformation point, and its forced knock-down increased significantly the levels of DNA damage and decreased the aggressiveness of the oncogenic phenotype. Thus, As3mt and Mth1 have important differential roles in the accumulation of DNA damage linked to the transformation process: while As3mt contributes to the genotoxic effects before the transformation, Mth1 prevents the DNA damage fixation after the acquisition of the oncogenic phenotype. This study demonstrates the influence of As3mt and Mth1 in arsenic DNA damage induction and it is the first to present Mth1 as a candidate modulator biomarker of the tumoral phenotype.

Identification of 2-Imidazopyridine and 2-Aminopyridone Purinones as Potent Pan-Janus Kinase (JAK) Inhibitors for the Inhaled Treatment of Respiratory Diseases.

Janus kinases (JAKs) have a key role in regulating the expression and function of relevant inflammatory cytokines involved in asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Herein are described the design, synthesis, and pharmacological evaluation of a series of novel purinone JAK inhibitors with profiles suitable for inhaled administration. Replacement of the imidazopyridine hinge binding motif present in the initial compounds of this series with a pyridone ring resulted in the mitigation of cell cytotoxicity. Further systematic structure-activity relationship (SAR) efforts driven by structural biology studies led to the discovery of pyridone 34, a potent pan-JAK inhibitor with good selectivity, long lung retention time, low oral bioavailability, and proven efficacy in the lipopolysaccharide-induced rat model of airway inflammation by the inhaled route.

Novel Inhaled Pan-JAK Inhibitor, LAS194046, Reduces Allergen-Induced Airway Inflammation, Late Asthmatic Response, and pSTAT Activation in Brown Norway Rats.

The Janus-activated kinase (JAK) family together with signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) signaling pathway has a key role in regulating the expression and function of many inflammatory cytokines. This has led to the discovery of JAK inhibitors for the treatment of inflammatory diseases, some of them already in the market. Considering the adverse effects associated with JAK inhibition by oral route, we wanted to explore whether JAK inhibition by inhaled route is enough to inhibit airway inflammation. The aim of this study was to characterize the enzymatic and cellular potency and the selectivity of LAS194046, a novel JAK inhibitor, compared with the reference compounds ruxolitinib and tofacitinib. The efficacy of this new JAK inhibitor is described in a model of ovalbumin (OVA)-induced airway inflammation in Brown Norway rats by inhaled administration. As potential markers of target engagement, we assessed the effect of LAS194046 on the STAT activation state. LAS194046 is a selective inhaled pan-JAK inhibitor that reduces allergen-induced airway inflammation, late asthmatic response, and phosphor-STAT activation in the rat OVA model. Our results show that topical inhibition of JAK in the lung, without relevant systemic exposure, is sufficient to reduce lung inflammation and improve lung function in a rat asthma model. In summary, JAK-STAT pathway inhibition by inhaled route constitutes a promising therapeutic option for lung inflammatory diseases.

Synergistic role of nanoceria on the ability of tobacco smoke to induce carcinogenic hallmarks in lung epithelial cells.

AIM: Since controversial results have been obtained in studies dealing with nanoceria usefulness in biomedical applications, the transforming effects of long-term exposure to nanoceria in lung epithelial cells, alone or together with cigarette smoke condensate (CSC), were evaluated. MATERIALS & METHODS: In vitro cell transformation techniques were used to study several hallmarks of carcinogenesis. Morphology, cell proliferation, gene expression, cell migration, anchorage-independent cell growth and cell secretome were analyzed. RESULTS & CONCLUSION: Data evidence no transforming ability of nanoceria, but support a synergistic role on CSC's transforming ability. A more noticeable spindle-like phenotype, increased proliferation rate, higher degree of differentiation status dysregulation, higher migration capacity, increased anchorage-independent cell growth and higher levels of MMP-9 and cell growth promoting capability, were observed. In addition, nanoceria co-exposure exacerbates the expression of FRA-1.

Oxidative DNA damage enhances the carcinogenic potential of in vitro chronic arsenic exposures.

Chronic exposure to arsenic is known to increase the incidence of cancer in humans. Our previous work demonstrated that environmentally relevant arsenic exposures generate an accelerated accumulation of pre-carcinogen 8-OH-dG DNA lesions under Ogg1-deficient backgrounds, but it remains unproved whether this observed arsenic-induced oxidative DNA damage (ODD) is certainly important in terms of cancer. Here, isogenic MEF Ogg1 (+/+) cells and MEF Ogg1 (-/-) cells-unable to properly eliminate 8-OH-dG from DNA-were exposed to 0.5, 1 and 2 µM of sodium arsenite for 40 weeks. The acquisition of an in vitro cancer-like phenotype was assessed throughout the exposure; matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) activities were measured by zymography, colony formation and promotion were evaluated by soft agar assay, and cellular invasiveness was measured by the transwell assay. Alterations in cellular morphology, growth and differentiation status were also included as complementary measures of transformation. MEF Ogg1 (-/-) cells showed a cancer-associated phenotype after 30 weeks of exposure, as indicated by morphological changes, increased proliferation, deregulated differentiation status, increased MMPs secretion, anchorage-independent cell growth and enhancement of tumor growth and invasiveness. Conversely, MEF Ogg1 (+/+) cells did not present changes in morphology or proliferation, exhibited a milder degree of gene deregulation and needed 10 weeks of additional exposure to the highest arsenite doses to show tumor enhancing effects. Thus, Ogg1 genetic background and arsenic-induced 8-OH-dG proved relevant for arsenic-mediated carcinogenic effects. To our knowledge, this is the first study directly linking ODD with arsenic carcinogenesis.

Acute and long-term in vitro effects of zinc oxide nanoparticles.

Since most of the toxic studies of zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) focused on acute and high-dose exposure conditions, the aim of the present study was to fill the existing knowledge gap of long-term effects of ZnO NPs at sub-toxic doses. To overcome this point, we have evaluated the toxic, genotoxic, and carcinogenic effects of ZnO NPs under long-term treatments (12 weeks), using a sub-toxic dose (1 µg/mL) according to acute 48-h exposure. Preliminarily, oxidative stress and genotoxic/oxidative DNA damage were determined under acute exposure and high-dose conditions. To determine the role of oxidative DNA damage, a wild-type mouse embryonic fibroblast (MEF Ogg1 (+/+)) and its isogenic 8-oxo-guanine DNA glycosylase 1 (Ogg1) knockout partner (MEF Ogg1 (-/-)) cell lines were used. Although short-term exposure (24-h) experiments demonstrated that ZnO NPs were able to induce ROS, genotoxicity, and oxidative DNA damage in both cell lines, no effects were obtained under long-term exposure scenario. Thus, 1 µg/mL exposure over 12 weeks was unable to induce genotoxicity as well as cellular transformation in both cell types, as indicated by the lack of observed morphological cell changes, variations in the secretion of matrix metalloproteinases, and anchorage-independent cell growth ability, regarded as cancer-like phenotypic hallmarks. Our results indicate that short-term effects of ZnO NP exposure are not replicated under long-term and sub-toxic dose conditions. All together, the lack of genotoxic/carcinogenic effects after chronic treatments seem to indicate a reduced risk associated with ZnO NP exposure.

Reduced cellular DNA repair capacity after environmentally relevant arsenic exposure. Influence of Ogg1 deficiency.

Inorganic arsenic (i-As) is a genotoxic and carcinogenic environmental contaminant known to affect millions of people worldwide. Our previous work demonstrated that chronic sub-toxic i-As concentrations were able to induce biologically significant levels of genotoxic and oxidative DNA damage that were strongly influenced by the Ogg1 genotype. In order to study the nature of the observed levels of damage and the observed differences between MEF Ogg1(+/+) and Ogg1(-/-) genetic backgrounds, the genotoxic and oxidative DNA repair kinetics of 18-weeks exposed MEF cells were evaluated by the comet assay. Results indicate that MEF Ogg1(+/+) and Ogg1(-/-) cells chronically exposed to i-As repair the DNA damage induced by arsenite, potassium bromide and UVC radiation less efficiently than control cells, being that observation clearly more pronounced in MEF Ogg1(-/-) cells. Consequently, exposed cells accumulate a higher percentage of unrepaired DNA damage at the end of the repair period. As an attempt to eliminate i-As associated toxicity, chronically exposed MEF Ogg1(-/-) cells overexpress the arsenic metabolizing enzyme As3mt. This adaptive response confers cells a significant resistance to i-As-induced cell death, but at expenses of accumulating high levels of DNA damage due to their repair impairment. Overall, the work presented here evidences that i-As chronic exposure disrupts the normal cellular repair function, and that oxidative DNA damage-and Ogg1 deficiency-exacerbates this phenomenon. The observed cell death resistance under a chronic scenario of genotoxic and oxidative stress may in turn contribute to the carcinogenic effects of i-As.

Antioxidant and antigenotoxic properties of CeO2 NPs and cerium sulphate: Studies with Drosophila melanogaster as a promising in vivo model.

Although in vitro approaches are the most used for testing the potential harmful effects of nanomaterials, in vivo studies produce relevant information complementing in vitro data. In this context, we promote the use of Drosophila melanogaster as a suitable in vivo model to characterise the potential risks associated to nanomaterials exposure. The main aim of this study was to evaluate different biological effects associated to cerium oxide nanoparticles (Ce-NPs) and cerium (IV) sulphate exposure. The end-points evaluated were egg-to-adult viability, particles uptake through the intestinal barrier, gene expression and intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) production by haemocytes, genotoxicity and antigenotoxicity. Transmission electron microscopy images showed internalisation of Ce-NPs by the intestinal barrier and haemocytes, and significant expression of Hsp genes was detected. In spite of these findings, neither toxicity nor genotoxicity related to both forms of cerium were observed. Interestingly, Ce-NPs significantly reduced the genotoxic effect of potassium dichromate and the intracellular ROS production. No morphological malformations were detected after larvae treatment. This study highlights the importance of D. melanogaster as animal model in the study of the different biological effects caused by nanoparticulated materials, at the time that shows its usefulness to study the role of the intestinal barrier in the transposition of nanomaterials entering via ingestion.

Long-term exposures to low doses of cobalt nanoparticles induce cell transformation enhanced by oxidative damage.

A weak aspect of the in vitro studies devoted to get information on the toxic, genotoxic and carcinogenic properties of nanomaterials is that they are usually conducted under acute-exposure and high-dose conditions. This makes difficult to extrapolate the results to human beings. To overcome this point, we have evaluated the cell transforming ability of cobalt nanoparticles (CoNPs) after long-term exposures (12 weeks) to sub-toxic doses (0.05 and 0.1 µg/mL). To get further information on whether CoNPs-induced oxidative DNA damage is relevant for CoNPs carcinogenesis, the cell lines selected for the study were the wild-type mouse embryonic fibroblast (MEF Ogg1(+/+)) and its isogenic Ogg1 knockout partner (MEF Ogg1(-)(/)(-)), unable to properly eliminate the 8-OH-dG lesions from DNA. Our initial short-term exposure experiments demonstrate that low doses of CoNPs are able to induce reactive oxygen species (ROS) and that MEF Ogg1(-)(/)(-) cells are more sensitive to CoNPs-induced acute toxicity and oxidative DNA damage. On the other hand, long-term exposures of MEF cells to sub-toxic doses of CoNPs were able to induce cell transformation, as indicated by the observed morphological cell changes, significant increases in the secretion of metalloproteinases (MMPs) and anchorage-independent cell growth ability, all cancer-like phenotypic hallmarks. Interestingly, such changes were significantly dependent on the cell line used, the Ogg1(-)(/)(-) cells being particularly sensitive. Altogether, the data presented here confirms the potential carcinogenic risk of CoNPs and points out the relevance of ROS and Ogg1 genetic background on CoNPs-associated effects.

Ogg1 genetic background determines the genotoxic potential of environmentally relevant arsenic exposures.

Inorganic arsenic (i-As) is a well-established human carcinogen to which millions of people are exposed worldwide. It is generally accepted that the genotoxic effects of i-As after an acute exposure are partially linked to the i-As-induced production of reactive oxygen species, but it is necessary to better determine whether chronic sub-toxic i-As doses are able to induce biologically significant levels of oxidative DNA damage (ODD). To fill in this gap, we have tested the genotoxic and oxidative effects of environmentally relevant arsenic exposures using mouse embryonic fibroblast MEF mutant Ogg1 cells and their wild-type counterparts. Effects were examined by using the comet assay complemented with the use of FPG enzyme. Our findings indicate that MEF Ogg1-/- cells are more sensitive to arsenite-induced acute toxicity, genotoxicity and ODD. Long-term exposure to sub-toxic doses of arsenite generates a detectable increase in ODD and genotoxic DNA damage only in MEF Ogg1-deficient cells. Altogether, the data presented here point out the relevance of ODD and Ogg1 genetic background on the genotoxic risk of i-As at environmentally plausible doses. The persistent accumulation of DNA 8-OH-dG lesions in Ogg1-/- cells during the complete course of the exposure suggests a relevant role in arsenic-associated carcinogenic risk in turn.

The stereocontrolled total synthesis of altohyrtin A/spongistatin 1: the southern hemisphere EF segment.

The fully functionalised C29-C51 southern hemisphere of altohyrtin A/spongistatin 1 , incorporating the E- and F-ring tetrahydropyran rings and the unsaturated side chain, has been synthesised in a highly convergent and stereocontrolled manner. Key steps in the synthesis of this phosphonium salt include four highly diastereoselective, substrate-controlled, boron aldol reactions to establish key C-C bonds and accompanying stereocentres, where the introduction of the chlorodiene side chain and the C47 hydroxyl-bearing centre were realised by exploiting remote stereoinduction from the F-ring tetrahydropyran.

The stereocontrolled total synthesis of altohyrtin A/spongistatin 1: fragment couplings, completion of the synthesis, analogue generation and biological evaluation.

The antimitotic marine macrolide altohyrtin A/spongistatin 1 has been synthesised in a highly convergent and stereocontrolled manner, thus contributing to the replenishment of the largely exhausted material from the initial isolation work. Coupling of the AB- and CD-spiroacetal subunits by a stereoselective aldol reaction was achieved by using either a lithium (67 : 33 dr) or boron enolate (90 : 10 dr). A highly (Z)-selective Wittig coupling was used to unite the northern hemisphere aldehyde with the southern hemisphere phosphonium salt . Deprotection and subsequent regioselective macrolactonisation on a triol seco-acid completed the synthesis of altohyrtin A. Two structural analogues were also prepared and evaluated as growth inhibitory agents against a range of human tumour cell lines, including Taxol-resistant strains, alongside altohyrtin A and paclitaxel (Taxol), revealing that dehydration in the E-ring is tolerated and results in enhanced cytotoxicity (at the low picomolar level), whereas the presence of the full C44-C51 side-chain appears to be crucial for biological activity.

Highly stereoselective approach to alk-2-yne-1,4-diols by oxazaborolidine-mediated reduction of alk-2-yne-1,4-diones.

We performed the borane-mediated reduction of a series of symmetrical alk-2-yne-1,4-diones (5) in the presence of the oxazaborolidine (R)-6 to afford (R,R)-alk-2-yne-1,4-diols ((R,R)-1) in good yields and high stereoselectivities (up to 99.9% ee). In some cases, the stereochemical purity of 1 was improved by a two-step process: (i) temporary transformation of 1 into its vic-dibromo derivatives 9, which allowed us to remove the minor meso isomer by chromatography, and (ii) regeneration of the enantioenriched diols 1 with SmI2. Reduction of the hexacarbonyldicobalt complexes 8 derived from 5 was also successful.

N-acyl-5,5-dimethyloxazolidin-2-ones as latent aldehyde equivalents.

A study of the properties of N-hydrocinnamoyl- derivatives of 5,5-dimethyloxazolidin-2-one, 4,4-dimethyloxazolidin-2-one and oxazolidin-2-one upon hydride reduction with DIBAL-H demonstrates that the 5,5-dimethyl-group is essential for inhibition of endocyclic nucleophilic attack. For instance, treatment of N-hydrocinnamoyl-5,5-dimethyloxazolidin-2-one with DIBAL-H results in the selective formation of the stable N-1'-hydroxyalkyl derivative which may be regarded as a masked hydrocinnamaldehyde equivalent, as treatment under basic conditions affords the parent aldehyde in excellent yield. Treatment of N-hydrocinnamoyl-4,4-dimethyloxazolidin-2-one with DIBAL-H under identical conditions affords a complex mixture of products, including the formate ester product of endocyclic cleavage. As an alternate strategy, DIBAL-H reduction of straight chain and branched N-acyl-5,5-dimethyloxazolidin-2-one derivatives, followed by a Horner-Wadsworth-Emmons reaction affords alpha,beta-unsaturated esters in good yields. Branching alpha- to the exocyclic carbonyl in N-acyl-oxazolidinones inhibits DIBAL-H reduction, but this can be overcome by precomplexation with ZnCl2, with subsequent fragmentation generating either the corresponding aldehyde or alpha,beta-unsaturated esters. The addition of ZnCl2 has been shown to increase the diastereoselectivity observed in Wadsworth-Horner-Emmons reactions of lithiated phosphonates.

Synthesis and biological evaluation of spongistatin/altohyrtin analogues: E-ring dehydration and C46 side-chain truncation.

Simplified analogues of the potent antimitotic marine macrolide spongistatin 1/altohyrtin A were synthesised and evaluated as growth inhibitory agents against a range of human tumour cell lines, including Taxol-resistant strains, revealing that E-ring dehydration leads to enhanced cytotoxicity at the low picomolar level while truncation of the side-chain at C46 results in a drastic decrease in activity.

Stereocontrolled Total Synthesis of (+)-Altohyrtin A/Spongistatin 1.

As an exceptionally potent antimitotic macrolide, altohyrtin A/spongistatin 1 shows great promise in cancer chemotherapy but its extreme scarcity in the natural sponges has halted its further preclinical development. A highly stereocontrolled total synthesis, which exploits boron-mediated aldol bond constructions, has been realized to provide, for the first time, a useful amount of synthetic material.