Rehabilitation, Using Guided Cerebral Plasticity, of a Brachial Plexus Injury Treated with Intercostal and Phrenic Nerve Transfers.

Recovery after surgical reconstruction of a brachial plexus injury using nerve grafting and nerve transfer procedures is a function of peripheral nerve regeneration and cerebral reorganization. A 15-year-old boy, with traumatic avulsion of nerve roots C5-C7 and a non-rupture of C8-T1, was operated 3 weeks after the injury with nerve transfers: (a) terminal part of the accessory nerve to the suprascapular nerve, (b) the second and third intercostal nerves to the axillary nerve, and (c) the fourth to sixth intercostal nerves to the musculocutaneous nerve. A second operation-free contralateral gracilis muscle transfer directly innervated by the phrenic nerve-was done after 2 years due to insufficient recovery of the biceps muscle function. One year later, electromyography showed activation of the biceps muscle essentially with coughing through the intercostal nerves, and of the transferred gracilis muscle by deep breathing through the phrenic nerve. Voluntary flexion of the elbow elicited clear activity in the biceps/gracilis muscles with decreasing activity in intercostal muscles distal to the transferred intercostal nerves (i.e., corresponding to eighth intercostal), indicating cerebral plasticity, where neural control of elbow flexion is gradually separated from control of breathing. To restore voluntary elbow function after nerve transfers, the rehabilitation of patients operated with intercostal nerve transfers should concentrate on transferring coughing function, while patients with phrenic nerve transfers should focus on transferring deep breathing function.

Case report: Intraneural perineurioma of the sciatic nerve in an adolescent - strategies for revealing the diagnosis.

Diagnosis of intraneural conditions can be revealed by a combination of clinical examination, electrophysiology, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and targeted fascicular biopsy with subsequent microscopic analyses.

Inhibitors of endopeptidase and angiotensin-converting enzyme lead to an amplification of the morphological changes and an upregulation of the substance P system in a muscle overuse model.

BACKGROUND: We have previously observed, in studies on an experimental overuse model, that the tachykinin system may be involved in the processes of muscle inflammation (myositis) and other muscle tissue alterations. To further evaluate the significance of tachykinins in these processes, we have used inhibitors of neutral endopeptidase (NEP) and angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE), substances which are known to terminate the activity of various endogenously produced substances, including tachykinins. METHODS: Injections of inhibitors of NEP and ACE, as well as the tachykinin substance P (SP), were given locally outside the tendon of the triceps surae muscle of rabbits subjected to marked overuse of this muscle. A control group was given NaCl injections. Evaluations were made at 1 week, a timepoint of overuse when only mild inflammation and limited changes in the muscle structure are noted in animals not treated with inhibitors. Both the soleus and gastrocnemius muscles were examined morphologically and with immunohistochemistry and enzyme immunoassay (EIA). RESULTS: A pronounced inflammation (myositis) and changes in the muscle fiber morphology, including muscle fiber necrosis, occurred in the overused muscles of animals given NEP and ACE inhibitors. The morphological changes were clearly more prominent than for animals subjected to overuse and NaCl injections (NaCl group). A marked SP-like expression, as well as a marked expression of the neurokinin-1 receptor (NK-1R) was found in the affected muscle tissue in response to injections of NEP and ACE inhibitors. The concentration of SP in the muscles was also higher than that for the NaCl group. CONCLUSIONS: The observations show that the local injections of NEP and ACE inhibitors led to marked SP-like and NK-1R immunoreactions, increased SP concentrations, and an amplification of the morphological changes in the tissue. The injections of the inhibitors thus led to a more marked myositis process and an upregulation of the SP system. Endogenously produced substances, out of which the tachykinins conform to one substance family, may play a role in mediating effects in the tissue in a muscle that is subjected to pronounced overuse.

Axillary nerve injury in young adults--an overlooked diagnosis? Early results of nerve reconstruction and nerve transfers.

An injury to the axillary nerve from a shoulder trauma can easily be overlooked. Spontaneous functional recovery may occur, but occasionally reconstructive surgery is required. The time frame for nerve reconstruction procedures is from a neurobiological view crucial for a good functional outcome. This study presents a group of operatively and non-operatively treated young adults with axillary nerve injuries caused by motorcycle accidents, where the diagnosis was set late. Ten young men (median age at trauma 13 years, range 9-24) with an axillary nerve injury were diagnosed by examination of shoulder function and electromyography (EMG). The patients had either a nerve reconstruction procedure or were treated conservatively and their recovery was monitored. The axillary nerve was explored and reconstructed at a median of 8 months (range 1-22 months) after trauma in 8/10 patients. Two patients were treated non-operatively. In 4/8 cases, a reconstruction with sural nerve graft was performed and in 1/8 case only exploration of the nerve was made (minor neuroma). In 3/8 cases a radial nerve branch transfer to the axillary nerve was chosen as the procedure. The shoulder was mobilised after 3 weeks with physiotherapy and the patients were monitored regularly. Functional recovery was observed in 9/10 cases (median follow up 11 months, range 7-64) with EMG signs of reinnervation in seven patients. Axillary nerve function should not be overlooked in young patients with a minor shoulder trauma. Nerve reconstruction can successfully recreate function.

Tenocyte hypercellularity and vascular proliferation in a rabbit model of tendinopathy: contralateral effects suggest the involvement of central neuronal mechanisms.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether there are objective findings of tendinosis in a rabbit tendinopathy model on exercised and contralateral (non-exercised) Achilles tendons. DESIGN: Four groups of six New Zealand white rabbits per group were used. The animals of one (control) group were not subjected to exercise/stimulation. INTERVENTIONS: Animals were subjected to a protocol of electrical stimulation and passive flexion-extension of the right triceps surae muscle every second day for 1, 3 or 6 weeks. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Tenocyte number and vascular density were calculated. Morphological evaluations were also performed as well as in-situ hybridisation for vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) messenger RNA. RESULTS: There was a significant increase in the tenocyte number after 3 and 6 weeks of exercise, but not after 1 week, in comparison with the control group. This was seen in the Achilles tendons of both legs in experimental animals, including the unexercised limb. The pattern of vascularity showed an increase in the number of tendon blood vessels in rabbits that had exercised for 3 weeks or more, compared with those who had exercised for 1 week or not at all. VEGF-mRNA was detected in the investigated tissue, with the reactions being more clearly detected in the tendon tissue with tendinosis-like changes (6-week rabbits) than in the normal tendon tissue (control rabbits). CONCLUSIONS: There were bilateral tendinosis-like changes in the Achilles tendons of rabbits in the current model after 3 weeks of training, suggesting that central neuronal mechanisms may be involved and that the contralateral side is not appropriate as a control.

Advanced radiological work-up as an adjunct to decision in early reconstructive surgery in brachial plexus injuries.

BACKGROUND: As neurophysiologic tests may not reveal the extent of brachial plexus injury at the early stage, the role of early radiological work-up has become increasingly important. The aim of the study was to evaluate the concordance between the radiological and clinical findings with the intraoperative findings in adult patients with brachial plexus injuries. METHODS: Seven consecutive male patients (median age 33; range 15-61) with brachial plexus injuries, caused by motor cycle accidents in 5/7 patients, who underwent extensive radiological work-up with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), computed tomography myelography (CT-M) or both were included in this retrospective study. A total of 34 spinal nerve roots were evaluated by neuroradiologists at two different occasions. The degree of agreement between the radiological findings of every individual nerve root and the intraoperative findings was estimated by calculation of kappa coefficient (capital KA, Cyrillic-value). Using the operative findings as a gold standard, the accuracy, sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value (PPV) and negative predictive value (NPV) of the clinical findings and the radiological findings were estimated. RESULTS: The diagnostic accuracy of radiological findings was 88% compared with 65% for the clinical findings. The concordance between the radiological findings and the intraoperative findings was substantial (capital KA, Cyrillic = 0.76) compared with only fair (capital KA, Cyrillic = 0.34) for the clinical findings. There were two false positive and two false negative radiological findings (sensitivity and PPV of 0.90; specificity and NPV of 0.87). CONCLUSIONS: The advanced optimized radiological work-up used showed high reliability and substantial agreement with the intraoperative findings in adult patients with brachial plexus injury.

Compression of the lower trunk of the brachial plexus by a cervical rib in two adolescent girls: case reports and surgical treatment.

Presence of a cervical rib in children is extremely rare, particularly when symptoms of compression of the lower trunk of the brachial plexus occur. We present two cases with such a condition, where two young girls, 11 and 16 years of age were treated by resection of the cervical rib after a supraclavicular exploration of the lower trunk of the brachial plexus. The procedure led to successful results, objectively verified with tests in a work simulator, at one year follow-up.

Incidence of early posterior shoulder dislocation in brachial plexus birth palsy.

BACKGROUND: Posterior dislocation of the shoulder in brachial plexus birth palsy during the first year of life is rare but the incidence increases with age. The aim was to calculate the incidence of these lesions in children below one year of age. METHODS: The incidence of brachial plexus birth lesion and occurrence of posterior shoulder dislocation was calculated based on a prospective follow up of all brachial plexus patients at an age below one in Malmö municipality, Sweden, 2000-2005. RESULTS: The incidence of brachial plexus birth palsy was 3.8/1000 living infants and year with a corresponding incidence of posterior shoulder dislocation (history, clinical examination and x-ray) during the first year of 0.28/1000 living infants and year, i.e. 7.3% of all brachial plexus birth palsies. CONCLUSION: All children with a brachial plexus birth lesion (incidence 3.8 per thousand) should be screened, above the assessment of neurological recovery, during the first year of life for posterior dislocation of the shoulder (incidence 0.28 per thousand) since such a condition may occur in 7% of children with a brachial plexus birth lesion.

Sensory recovery after hand reimplantation: a clinical, morphological, and neurophysiological study in humans.

Despite fairly good return of motor function, patients who have amputated hands reimplanted demonstrate poor sensory recovery and severe cold intolerance, two variables that are difficult to quantify reliably. In this study we wanted to find out if there is a correlation between morphological findings of sensory and sympathetic reinnervation and clinical and neurophysiological variables. Skin was biopsied from the reimplanted and corresponding area in the normal hands of eight patients who had sustained a hand amputation and subsequent reimplantation. The sections were immunostained using markers for both sensory and sympathetic nerve fibres. Comparison between the reimplanted and normal sides in each individual showed a mean loss of sensory immunoreactive nerve fibres of 30%, and for sympathetic immunoreactivity the loss was 60%. There was measurable two-point discrimination in the injured hand only in patients below the age of 40 years, corresponding to the better recovery of mechanical thresholds evaluated neurophysiologically for this age group. These results confirm the extensive loss of sensory nerve fibres after nerve injury, probably correlated to loss of sensory neurons. We have also shown that it is possible to correlate the results of clinical and neurophysiological evaluation with morphological results of skin reinnervation specific to the repaired nerve, and so improve the possibility for the quantification of sensory recovery.