Dose Profile Modulation of Proton Minibeam for Clinical Application.

The feasibility of proton minibeam radiation therapy (pMBRT) using a multislit collimator (MSC) and a scattering device was evaluated for clinical use at a clinical proton therapy facility. We fabricated, through Monte Carlo (MC) simulations, not only an MSC with a high peak-to-valley dose ratio (PVDR) at the entrance of the proton beam, to prevent radiation toxicity, but also a scattering device to modulate the PVDR in depth. The slit width and center-to-center distance of the diverging MSC were 2.5 mm and 5.0 mm at the large end, respectively, and its thickness and available field size were 100 mm and 76 × 77.5 mm2, respectively. Spatially fractionated dose distributions were measured at various depths using radiochromic EBT3 films and also tested on bacterial cells. MC simulation showed that the thicker the MSC, the higher the PVDR at the phantom surface. Dosimetric evaluations showed that lateral dose profiles varied according to the scatterer's thickness, and the depths satisfying PVDR = 1.1 moved toward the surface as their thickness increased. The response of the bacterial cells to the proton minibeams' depth was also established, in a manner similar to the dosimetric pattern. Conclusively, these results strongly suggest that pMBRT can be implemented in clinical centers by using MSC and scatterers.

Preclinical evaluation of radiation therapy of BRCA1-associated mammary tumors using a mouse model.

Although germline mutations in BRCA1 highly predispose women towards breast and ovarian cancer, few substantial improvements in preventing or treating such cancers have been made. Importantly, BRCA1 function is closely associated with DNA damage repair, which is required for genetic stability. Here, we examined the efficacy of radiotherapy, assessing the accumulation of genetic instabilities, in the treatment of BRCA1-associated breast cancer using a Brca1-mutant mouse model. Treatment of Brca1-mutant tumor-engrafted mice with X-rays reduced tumor progression by 27.9% compared with untreated controls. A correlation analysis of irradiation responses and biomarker profiles in tumors at baseline identified differences between responders and non-responders at the protein level (pERα, pCHK2, p53, and EpCAM) and at the SOX2 target expression level. We further demonstrated that combined treatment of Brca1-mutant mammary tumors with irradiation and AZD2281, which inhibits PARP, significantly reduced tumor progression and extended survival. Our findings enhance the understanding of DNA damage and biomarker responses in BRCA1-associated mammary tumors and provide preclinical evidence that radiotherapy with synthetic DNA damage is a potential strategy for the therapeutic management of BRCA1-associated breast cancer.

Inhibition of Estrogen Signaling Reduces the Incidence of BRCA1-associated Mammary Tumor Formation.

BRCA1-deficient breast cancer is a very well-known hereditary cancer. However, except for resection of normal mammary glands and ovaries, there is no acceptable measure for proactively preventing tumor development. Importantly, inherited BRCA1 mutations are closely associated with tumors in hormone-responsive tissues. Here, we examined the effects of estrogen on the accumulation of genetic instabilities upon loss of BRCA1, and assessed the contribution of estrogen signaling to the incidence and progression of Brca1-mutated mammary tumors. Our in vitro studies showed that treatment of BRCA1-depleted breast cancer cells with estrogen induced proliferation. Additionally, estrogen reduced the ability of these BRCA1-knockdown cells to sense radiation-induced DNA damage and also facilitated G1/S progression. Moreover, long-term treatment of Brca1-mutant (Brca1co/coMMTV-Cre) mice with the selective estrogen receptor (ER)-α degrader, fulvestrant, decreased the tumor formation rate from 64% to 36%, and also significantly reduced mammary gland density in non-tumor-bearing mice. However, in vivo experiments showed that fulvestrant treatment did not alter the progression of ER-positive Brca1-mutant tumors, which were frequently identified in the aged population and showed less aggressive tendencies. These findings enhance our understanding of how ER-α signaling contributes to BRCA1-deficient mammary tumors and provide evidence suggesting that targeted inhibition of ER-α signaling may be useful for the prevention of BRCA1-mutated breast cancer.

Inhibition of AKT suppresses the initiation and progression of BRCA1-associated mammary tumors.

Despite the high incidence of BRCA1-mutant breast cancer, few substantial improvements in preventing or treating such cancers have been made. Using a Brca1-mutant mouse model, we examined the contribution of AKT to the incidence and growth of Brca1-mutated mammary tumors. A haploinsufficiency of Akt1 in Brca1-mutant mouse model significantly decreased mammary tumor formation from 54% in Brca1co/coMMTV-Cre mice to 22% in Brca1 co/coMMTV-Cre Akt1+/- mice. Notably, treatment of tumor-bearing Brca1-mutant mice with the AKT-inhibitor, MK-2206, yielded partial response or stable disease up to 91% of mice in maximum response. MK-2206 treatment also significantly reduced tumor volume and delayed recurrence in allograft and adjuvant studies, respectively. A correlation analysis of MK-2206 responses with gene expression profiles of tumors at baseline identified seven genes that were differentially expressed between tumors that did and did not respond to MK-2206 treatment. Our findings enhance our understanding of the involvement of AKT signaling in BRCA1-deficient mammary tumors and provide preclinical evidence that targeted AKT inhibition is a potential strategy for the prevention and therapeutic management of BRCA1-associated breast cancer.

Cyclin B1 stability is increased by interaction with BRCA1, and its overexpression suppresses the progression of BRCA1-associated mammary tumors.

Germline BRCA1 mutations predispose women to breast and ovarian cancer. BRCA1, a large protein with multiple functional domains, interacts with numerous proteins involved in many important biological processes and pathways. However, to date, the role of BRCA1 interactions at specific stages in the progression of mammary tumors, particularly in relation to cell cycle regulation, remains elusive. Here, we demonstrate that BRCA1 interacts with cyclin B1, a crucial cell cycle regulator, and that their interaction is modulated by DNA damage and cell cycle phase. In DNA-damaged mitotic cells, BRCA1 inhibits cytoplasmic transportation of cyclin B1, which prevents cyclin B1 degradation. Moreover, restoration of cyclin B1 in BRCA1-deficient cells reduced cell survival in association with induction of apoptosis. We further demonstrate that treatment of Brca1-mutant mammary tumors with vinblastine, which induces cyclin B1, significantly reduced tumor progression. In addition, a correlation analysis of vinblastine responses and gene expression profiles in tumors at baseline revealed 113 genes that were differentially expressed between tumors that did and did not respond to vinblastine treatment. Further analyses of protein-protein interaction networks revealed gene clusters related to vinblastine resistance, including nucleotide excision repair, epigenetic regulation, and the messenger RNA surveillance pathway. These findings enhance our understanding of how loss of BRCA1 disrupts mitosis regulation through dysregulation of cyclin B1 and provide evidence suggesting that targeting cyclin B1 may be useful in BRCA1-associated breast cancer therapy.

Loss of BRCA1 Spontaneously Induces the Tumorigenesis in Lacrimal Gland.

Environmental and genetic factors exert important influences on lifespan and neoplastic transformation. We have previously shown that spontaneous tumors form frequently in mice homozygous for a full-length Brca1 deletion. In general, mutations of BRCA1 are closely associated with induction of breast and ovarian cancers but are also known to contribute to the incidence of other cancers at a low frequency. Female Brca1-mutant mice (Brca1co/coMMTV-cre) were generated by crossing Brca1 conditional knockout mice and MMTV-cre mice, and the occurrence of lacrimal gland abnormalities and tumors was followed until mice reached 18 months of age. Lacrimal gland tumors, which occur at a very low frequency in the human population (1 per 1,000,000 per year), were detected in 7 cases of Brca1co/coMMTV-cre mice (2.75%) older than 9 months of age. None of seven mice exhibited any abnormality in the mammary gland including neoplasia, suggesting lacrimal gland tumor is spontaneously and independently formed. These tumors, which were detected in seven mutant mice that displayed exophthalmoses, were malignant, originated from epithelial cells, and were identified as acinic cell carcinoma by pathological analysis. Further analysis revealed that tumorigenesis was accompanied by the accumulation of cyclin D1 and decreased expression of the cellular oncogenes, c-Myc, c-Jun, and c-Raf. Tumors also exhibited rearrangement of cytoskeletal proteins, including ß-catenin, keratin 5, and vimentin, depending on tumor progression. These results suggest that BRCA1 is involved in genetic stability of the lacrimal gland, providing new insight into genomic instability in organism maintenance and tumorigenesis of the lacrimal gland.

CHK2 is involved in the p53-independent radiosensitizing effects of valproic acid.

Radiotherapy is an effective treatment for the majority of types of localized solid cancer. However, the risk of side effects to the surrounding normal tissues limits radiotherapeutic approaches. Whilst the mechanism of action of valproic acid, an inhibitor of histone deacetylase, remains unknown, the inhibitor is a potential antineoplastic radiosensitizer. The present study demonstrated the in vitro radiosensitizing effects of valproic acid on the human breast cancer MCF7 cell line, and revealed that valproic acid increased the level of DNA breakage, apoptosis and senescence. In addition, western blot analyses revealed that valproic acid induced tumor suppressor protein (p)53 and p21 expression, and activated checkpoint kinase 2 (CHK2) in MCF7 cells and primary mouse embryonic fibroblasts. Notably, treatment with valproic acid also induced increases in the level of p21 protein levels and CHK2 activity in p53-null colon cancer HCT116 cells. Furthermore, the present study demonstrated that valproic acid-induced radiosensitization was largely dependent on the activity of CHK2. The results of the present study reveal that valproic acid may exhibit clinical utility with respect to increasing the anticancer efficacy of radiotherapy by affecting the level of p53.

Caspase-3/7-mediated Cleavage of ß2-spectrin is Required for Acetaminophen-induced Liver Damage.

UNLABELLED: The ubiquitously expressed ß2-spectrin (ß2SP, SPTBN1) is the most common non-erythrocytic member of the ß-spectrin gene family. Loss of ß2-spectrin leads to defects in liver development, and its haploinsufficiency spontaneously leads to chronic liver disease and the eventual development of hepatocellular cancer. However, the specific role of ß2-spectrin in liver homeostasis remains to be elucidated. Here, we reported that ß2-spectrin was cleaved by caspase-3/7 upon treatment with acetaminophen which is the main cause of acute liver injury. Blockage of ß2-spectrin cleavage robustly attenuated ß2-spectrin-specific functions, including regulation of the cell cycle, apoptosis, and transcription. Cleaved fragments of ß2-spectrin were physiologically active, and the N- and C-terminal fragments retained discrete interaction partners and activity in transcriptional regulation and apoptosis, respectively. Cleavage of ß2-spectrin facilitated the redistribution of the resulting fragments under conditions of liver damage induced by acetaminophen. In contrast, downregulation of ß2-spectrin led to resistance to acetaminophen-induced cytotoxicity, and its insufficiency in the liver promoted suppression of acetaminophen-induced liver damage and enhancement of liver regeneration. CONCLUSIONS: ß2-Spectrin, a TGF-ß mediator and signaling molecule, is cleaved and activated by caspase-3/7, consequently enhancing apoptosis and transcriptional control to determine cell fate upon liver damage. These findings have extended our knowledge on the spectrum of ß2-spectrin functions from a scaffolding protein to a target and transmitter of TGF-ß in liver damage.

Loss of ß2-spectrin prevents cardiomyocyte differentiation and heart development.

AIMS: ß2-Spectrin is an actin-binding protein that plays an important role in membrane integrity and the transforming growth factor (TGF)-ß signalling pathway as an adaptor for Smads. Loss of ß2-spectrin in mice (Spnb2(-/-)) results in embryonic lethality with gastrointestinal, liver, neural, and heart abnormalities that are similar to those in Smad2(+/-)Smad3(+/-) mice. However, to date, the role of ß2-spectrin in embryogenesis, particularly in heart development, has been poorly delineated. Here, we demonstrated that ß2-spectrin is required for the survival and differentiation of cardiomyocytes, and its loss resulted in defects in heart development with failure of ventricular wall thickening. METHODS AND RESULTS: Disruption of ß2-spectrin in primary muscle cells not only inhibited TGF-ß/Smad signalling, but also reduced the expression of the cardiomyocyte differentiation markers Nkx2.5, dystrophin, and α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA). Furthermore, cytoskeletal networks of dystrophin, F-actin, and α-SMA in cardiomyocytes were disorganized upon loss of ß2-spectrin. In addition, deletion of ß2-spectrin in mice (Spnb2(tm1a/tm1a)) prevented proper development of the heart in association with disintegration of dystrophin structure and markedly reduced survival. CONCLUSION: These data suggest that ß2-spectrin deficiency leads to inactivation of TGF-ß/Smad signalling and contributes to dysregulation of the cell cycle, proliferation, differentiation, and the cytoskeletal network, and it leads to defective heart development. Our data demonstrate that ß2-spectrin is required for proper development of the heart and that disruption of ß2-spectrin is a potential underlying cause of congenital heart defects.

Transforming growth factor-ß adaptor, ß2-spectrin, modulates cyclin dependent kinase 4 to reduce development of hepatocellular cancer.

UNLABELLED: Transforming growth factor beta (TGF-ß) is an important regulator of cell growth, and loss of TGF-ß signaling is a hallmark of carcinogenesis. The Smad3/4 adaptor protein ß2-spectrin (ß2SP) is emerging as a potent regulator of tumorigenesis through its ability to modulate the tumor suppressor function of TGF-ß. However, to date the role of the TGF-ß signaling pathway at specific stages of the development of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), particularly in relation to the activation of other oncogenic pathways, remains poorly delineated. Here we identify a mechanism by which ß2SP, a crucial Smad3 adaptor, modulates cyclin dependent kinase 4 (CDK4), cell cycle progression, and suppression of HCC. Increased expression of ß2SP inhibits phosphorylation of the retinoblastoma gene product (Rb) and markedly reduces CDK4 expression to a far greater extent than other CDKs and cyclins. Furthermore, suppression of CDK4 by ß2SP efficiently restores Rb hypophosphorylation and cell cycle arrest in G(1) . We further demonstrate that ß2SP interacts with CDK4 and Smad3 in a competitive and TGF-ß-dependent manner. In addition, haploinsufficiency of cdk4 in ß2sp(+/-) mice results in a dramatic decline in HCC formation compared to that observed in ß2sp(+/-) mice. CONCLUSION: ß2SP deficiency leads to CDK4 activation and contributes to dysregulation of the cell cycle, cellular proliferation, oncogene overexpression, and the formation of HCCs. Our data highlight CDK4 as an attractive target for the pharmacologic inhibition of HCC and demonstrate the importance of ß2sp(+/-) mice as a model of preclinical efficacy in the treatment of HCC.

In vivo radiobiological characterization of proton beam at the National Cancer Center in Korea: effect of the Chk2 mutation.

PURPOSE: The relative biological effectiveness (RBE) in the presence or absence of CHK2 was estimated at the Korean National Cancer Center Proton Therapy Center (NCCPTC). METHODS AND MATERIALS: The proton beam was fixed at 210 MeV with 6-cm spread-out Bragg peaks (SOBPs) because this is expected to be the most frequently used clinical setting. X-rays were obtained using a 6-MV conventional linear accelerator. The RBE was estimated from the survival of jejunal crypt in C3H/He and Chk2(-/-) mice. RESULTS: The estimated RBEs of the NCCPTC at the middle of the SOBP were 1.10 and 1.05 in the presence and absence of CHK2, respectively. The doses that reduced the number of regenerated crypt per jejunal circumference to 20 (D(20)) in C3H/He mice were 14.8 Gy (95% confidence interval [CI], 13.7-15.9) for X-rays and 13.5 Gy (95% CI, 14.5-15.5) for protons. By contrast, the doses of D(20) in Chk2(-/-) mice were 15.7 Gy (95% CI, 15.0-16.4) and 14.9 Gy (95% CI, 14.0-15.8) for X-rays and protons, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: The RBE of the NCCPTC is clearly within the range of RBEs determined at other facilities and is consistent with the generic RBE value of 1.10 for 150- to 250-MeV beams. The mutation of Chk2 gave rise to radioresistance but exhibited similar RBE.

Human papillomavirus 16 E6 increases the radiosensitivity of p53-mutated cervical cancer cells, associated with up-regulation of aurora A.

PURPOSE: To examine the effect of the human papillomavirus (HPV) type 16-E6 (HPV 'early' gene) oncoprotein on in vitro radiosensitivity of HPV-negative/p53 mutant C33a cervical cancer cells. METHODS AND MATERIALS: The human cervical cancer cell line C33a was stably transfected with either the HPV16 E6 cDNA cloned into the vector pcDNA3.0 (C33aE6) or the empty-vector control (C33aV). Radiosensitivity, DNA damage, and cell cycle measurements were made using standard clonogenic assays, immunofluorescent assessment of nuclear histone H2AX phosphorylated on serine-139 (gamma-H2AX) foci, and flow cytometry. Western immunoblotting and fluorescence confocal microscopy were used to analyse the changes in cellular proteins. Real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was used to compare levels of aurora A mRNA. RESULTS: Compared to C33aV cells, C33aE6 cells showed enhanced radiation cell killing. This was associated with a large amount of polyploidy which was followed by late cell death in C33aE6 cells. Aurora A was highly expressed in C33aE6 cells at pre- and post-irradiation times compared to C33aV cells. Silencing aurora A resulted in a reduced amount of residual gamma-H2AX foci in C33aE6 cells, and diminished the difference in radiosensitivity between the C33aE6 and C33aV cells. CONCLUSION: Our in vitro results indicate that genetic instability could be augmented in the HPV-infected cancer cells by up-regulation of aurora A, especially against a background of dysfunctional p53. Further studies are needed to examine whether aurora A could be a viable therapeutic target in HPV-related tumours.

Impaired skin and mammary gland development and increased gamma-irradiation-induced tumorigenesis in mice carrying a mutation of S1152-ATM phosphorylation site in Brca1.

The tumor suppressor BRCA1 interacts with many proteins and undergoes multiple modifications on DNA damage. ATM, a key molecule of the DNA damage response, phosphorylates S1189 of BRCA1 after gamma-irradiation. S1189 of BRCA1 is known as a unique ATM phosphorylation site in BRCA1 exon 11. To study the functions of ATM-dependent phosphorylation of BRCA1-S1189, we generated a mouse model carrying a mutation of S1152A (S1152 in mouse Brca1 corresponds to S1189 in human BRCA1) by gene targeting. Brca1(S1152A/S1152A) mice were born at the expected ratio, unlike that seen in previous studies of Brca1-null mice. However, 36% of Brca1(S1152A/S1152A) mice exhibited aging-like phenotypes including growth retardation, skin abnormalities, and delay of the mammary gland morphogenesis, with an increase in apoptosis. Mutant mice were hypersensitive to high doses of gamma-irradiation, displaying shortened life span and reduction in intestinal villus size, associated with increased apoptosis. Aging-unaffected 18-month-old Brca1(S1152A/S1152A) female mice also showed mammary gland abnormalities with increased levels of cyclin D1 and phospho-ER-alpha, such as Brca1-Delta11 mutation. On low-dose gamma-irradiation, they suffered a marked increase in tumor formation with an abnormal coat pattern. Furthermore, Brca1(S1152A/S1152A) embryonic fibroblasts failed to accumulate p53 on gamma-irradiation with delayed phosphorylation of p53-S23. These observations indicate that ATM-mediated phosphorylation of S1189 is required for BRCA1 functions in the modulation of DNA damage response and in the suppression of tumor formation by regulating p53 and apoptosis.

ATM is required for rapid degradation of cyclin D1 in response to gamma-irradiation.

The cellular response to DNA damage induced by gamma-irradiation activates cell-cycle arrest to permit DNA repair and to prevent replication. Cyclin D1 is the key molecule for transition between the G1 and S phases of the cell-cycle, and amplification or overexpression of cyclin D1 plays pivotal roles in the development of several human cancers. To study the regulation of cyclin D1 in the DNA-damaged condition, we analyzed the proteolytic regulation of cyclin D1 expression upon gamma-irradiation. Upon gamma-irradiation, a rapid reduction in cyclin D1 levels was observed prior to p53 stabilization, indicating that the stability of cyclin D1 is controlled in a p53-independent manner. Further analysis revealed that irradiation facilitated ubiquitination of cyclin D1 and that a proteasome inhibitor blocked cyclin D1 degradation under the same conditions. Interestingly, after mutation of threonine residue 286 of cyclin D1, which is reported to be the GSK-3beta phosphorylation site, the mutant protein showed resistance to irradiation-induced proteolysis although inhibitors of GSK-3beta failed to prevent cyclin D1 degradation. Rather, ATM inhibition markedly prevented cyclin D1 degradation induced by gamma-irradiation. Our data indicate that communication between ATM and cyclin D1 may be required for maintenance of genomic integrity achieved by rapid arrest of the cell-cycle, and that disruption of this crosstalk may increase susceptibility to cancer.

Hepatocellular cancer arises from loss of transforming growth factor beta signaling adaptor protein embryonic liver fodrin through abnormal angiogenesis.

UNLABELLED: We have previously demonstrated that 40%-70% of elf(+/-) mice spontaneously develop hepatocellular cancer (HCC) within 15 months, revealing the importance of the transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta) signaling pathway in suppressing tumorigenesis in the liver. The current study was carried out to investigate mechanisms by which embryonic liver fodrin (ELF), a crucial Smad3/4 adaptor, suppresses liver tumor formation. Histological analysis of hyperplastic liver tissues from elf(+/-) mice revealed abundant newly formed vascular structures, suggesting aberrant angiogenesis with loss of ELF function. In addition, elf(+/-) mice displayed an expansion of endothelial progenitor cells. Ectopic ELF expression in fetal bovine heart endothelial (FBHE) cells resulted in cell cycle arrest and apoptosis. Further analysis of developing yolk sacs of elf(-/-) mice revealed a failure of normal vasculature and significantly decreased endothelial cell differentiation with embryonic lethality. Immunohistochemical analysis of hepatocellular cancer (HCC) from the elf(+/-) mice revealed an abnormal angiogenic profile, suggesting the role of ELF as an angiogenic regulator in suppressing HCC. Lastly, acute small interfering RNA (siRNA) inhibition of ELF raised retinoblastoma protein (pRb) levels nearly fourfold in HepG2 cells (a hepatocellular carcinoma cell line) as well as in cow pulmonary artery endothelial (CPAE) cells, respectively. CONCLUSION: Taken together these results, ELF, a TGF-beta adaptor and signaling molecule, functions as a critical adaptor protein in TGF-beta modulation of angiogenesis as well as cell cycle progression. Loss of ELF in the liver leads the cancer formation by deregulated hepatocyte proliferation and stimulation of angiogenesis in early cancers. Our studies propose that ELF is potentially a powerful target for mimetics enhancing the TGF-beta pathway tumor suppression of HCC.

Radiobiological characterization of proton beam at the National Cancer Center in Korea.

Estimation of the relative biological effectiveness (RBE) of the proton beam at the National Cancer Center Proton Therapy Center in Korea (NCCPTC) is required clinically for the treatment of cancer. The proton beam was fixed at 190 MeV with 6 cm a spread out Bragg peaks (SOBP) for which corresponds to most frequent clinical condition. The RBE was estimated from the survival of human salivary gland (HSG) cells using the traditional colonogenic and MTT assays. The HSG cells were also irradiated in a cell-stack chamber and monitored for survival to identify whether the characteristic depth-dependent survival pattern was observed. The RBE of the NCCPTC was estimated to be 1.024 +/- 0.007 and 1.049 +/- 0.028 at the middle of SOBP using colonogenic and MTT assays, respectively. Further analysis of the biological response of proton exposure revealed no difference compared to conventional X-ray treatment in western blot, and FACS analysis. The proton beam of the NCCPTC also exhibited the characteristic depth-dependent survival pattern. The estimated RBE value of NCCPTC was slightly smaller than generic RBE value of 1.1 for protons of the majority of centers. Due to the recommendation of a generic RBE of 1.1 for protons, a representative RBE value of 1.1 was assigned for clinical application for proton beams at the NCCPTC.

Inactivation of TGF-beta signaling in lung cancer results in increased CDK4 activity that can be rescued by ELF.

Escape from TGF-beta inhibition of proliferation is a hallmark of multiple cancers including lung cancer. We explored the role of ELF, crucial TGF-beta adaptor protein identified from endodermal progenitor cells, in lung carcinogenesis and cell-cycle regulation. Interestingly, elf-/- mice develop multiple defects that include lung, liver, and cardiac abnormalities. Four out of 6 lung cancer and mesothelioma cell lines displayed deficiency of ELF expression with increased CDK4 expression. Immunohistochemistry and Western blot analysis of primary human lung cancers also showed decreased ELF expression and overexpression of CDK4. Moreover, rescue of ELF in ELF-deficient cell lines decreased the expression of CDK4 and resulted in accumulation of G1/S checkpoint arrested cells. These results suggest that disruption in TGF-beta signaling mediated by loss of ELF in lung cancer leads to cell-cycle deregulation by modulating CDK4 and ELF highlights a key role of TGF-beta adaptor protein in suppressing early lung cancer.

TGF-beta signaling pathway inactivation and cell cycle deregulation in the development of gastric cancer: role of the beta-spectrin, ELF.

We have shown that loss of ELF, a stem cell adaptor protein, disrupts TGF-beta signaling through Smad3 and Smad4 localization. Notably elf(+/-)/smad4(+/-) mice develop gastric cancer presenting this as an important model for analyzing molecular event in gastric carcinogenesis. To gain further insight into the functional role of ELF in gastric cancer suppression, we carried out a detailed characterization of cell cycle events leading to gastric tumorigenesis. elf(-/-) cells and elf(+/-)/smad4(+/-) mice demonstrate a marked alteration of cell cycle regulators, such as Cdk4, K-Ras, and p21. Levels of Cdk4 increased compared to normal controls, suggesting loss of ELF results in functional abnormalities in cell cycle regulation. We further demonstrate that the elf(-/-) MEFs show a disruption of G1/S cell cycle transition and a significant reduction in senescence. Thus, in response to ELF deficiency, the abnormalities of G1/S checkpoint and senescence contribute their increment of susceptibility to malignant transformation.

Analysis of short interfering RNA function in RNA interference by using Drosophila embryo extracts and schneider cells.

The realization that short double-stranded RNA (dsRNAs) 21-25 bp in length represent the basis for posttranscriptional gene silencing (PTGS) in plants, quelling in N. crassa, and RNA interference (RNAi) in C. elegans and Drosophila has given insight into one of the most evolutionarily conserved pathways in eukaryotes. dsRNA that arises due to viral infection, transposon mobilization, random insertion of transgenes near active promoters, transcripts from repetitive elements in the genome, or introduction of exogenous dsRNA directly is processed by one of the RNase III-related enzymes, known as the Dicers, to produce 21- to 25-bp short dsRNAs or short interfering RNAs (siRNAs) that target the degradation of the cognate RNA sequence (Denli and Hannon, 2003; Hannon, 2002; Plasterk, 2002). Proteins in the RNAi pathway and siRNA-like RNAs have also been recently demonstrated to play a role in the formation and maintenance of heterochromatin in S. pombe as well as in transgene-induced PTGS in Drosophila (Hall et al., 2002; Pal-Bhadra et al., 2004; Volpe et al., 2002). An understanding of siRNA function in these crucial regulatory pathways requires biochemical approaches to study siRNAs and their role in gene silencing as well as the formation and maintenance of heterochromatin. This chapter describes simple methods for using Drosophila embryo extracts and cultured insect cells to study siRNA function in the RNAi pathway in vivo and in vitro. We describe the most recent protocols for the preparation and use of Drosophila embryo extracts used in gene targeting studies. We present methods we have used to assay siRNA function in Drosophila embryo extracts and in cultured SL2 cells that demonstrate a combined role for siRNAs and RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) activity in Drosophila RNAi.

Role of K(+) channels in frequency regulation of spontaneous action potentials in rat pituitary GH(3) cells.

The frequency of spontaneous action potentials (SAP) is important in the regulation of hormone secretion. The decrease in K(+) conductance is known as a primary mechanism for increasing SAP frequency. To investigate the nature of K(+) channels that contribute to the frequency regulation of the SAP in rat clonal pituitary GH(3) cells, the effect of various K(+) channel blockers on the SAP and membrane currents were recorded using the patch-clamp technique. A classical inward rectifying K(+) channel blocker, Cs(+) (5 mM), caused an increase in firing frequency and depolarization in after-hyperpolarization (AHP) voltage. An ETHER-A-GO-GO(ERG) type K(+) channel blocker, E-4031 (5 microM), caused no significant effect on the SAP. Tetraethylammonium (TEA, 10 mM) decreased firing frequency and increased the duration of SAP. These effects were not changed by the presence of high concentration of Ca(2+) buffer (10 mM EGTA or BAPTA) in pipette solutions. In voltage-clamp experiments, Cs(+) and E-4031 did not affect outwardly rectifying K(+) currents, but significantly inhibited inwardly rectifying K(+) currents recorded in isotonic K(+) solution. However, the kinetics of Cs(+)-sensitive current and E-4031-sensitive current were distinctive: the time to peak was more immediate and the decay rate was slower in Cs(+)-sensitive current than in E-4031-sensitive current. These results imply that Cs(+) and E-4031 inhibit the distinct components of inwardly rectifying K(+) currents, and that the contribution of the Cs(+)-sensitive current can be immediate on repolarization and can last more effectively over pacemaking potential range than E-4031-sensitive current.