Proteomic Changes in Mouse Spleen after Radiation-Induced Injury and its Modulation by Gamma-Tocotrienol.

Gamma-tocotrienol (GT3), a naturally occurring vitamin E isomer, a promising radioprotector, has been shown to protect mice against radiation-induced hematopoietic and gastrointestinal injuries. We analyzed changes in protein expression profiles of spleen tissue after GT3 treatment in mice exposed to gamma radiation to gain insights into the molecular mechanism of radioprotective efficacy. Male CD2F1 mice, 12-to-14 weeks old, were treated with either vehicle or GT3 at 24 h prior to 7 Gy total-body irradiation. Nonirradiated vehicle, nonirradiated GT3 and age-matched naïve animals were used as controls. Blood and tissues were harvested on days 0, 1, 2, 4, 7, 10 and 14 postirradiation. High-resolution mass-spectrometry-based radioproteomics was used to identify differentially expressed proteins in spleen tissue with or without drug treatment. Subsequent bioinformatic analyses helped delineate molecular markers of biological pathways and networks regulating the cellular radiation responses in spleen. Our results show a robust alteration in spleen proteomic profiles including upregulation of the Wnt signaling pathway and actin-cytoskeleton linked proteins in mediating the radiation injury response in spleen. Furthermore, we show that 24 h pretreatment with GT3 attenuates radiation-induced hematopoietic injury in the spleen by modulating various cell signaling proteins. Taken together, our results show that the radioprotective effects of GT3 are mediated, via alleviation of radiation-induced alterations in biochemical pathways, with wide implications on overall hematopoietic injury.

CNTF receptor subunit α as a marker for glioma tumor-initiating cells and tumor grade: laboratory investigation.

OBJECT: Tumor-initiating cells are uniquely resilient to current treatment modalities and play an important role in tumor resistance and recurrence. The lack of specific tumor-initiating cell markers to identify and target these cells presents a major obstacle to effective directed therapy. METHODS: To identify tumor-initiating cell markers in primary brain tumors, the authors compared the proteomes of glioma tumor-initiating cells to their differentiated progeny using a novel, nongel/shotgun-based, multidimensional liquid-chromatography protein separation technique. An in vivo xenograft model was used to demonstrate the tumorigenic and stem cell properties of these cells. Western blot and immunofluorescence analyses were used to confirm findings of upregulated ciliary neurotrophic factor receptor subunit-α (CNTFRα) in undifferentiated tumor-initiating cells and gliomas of increasing tumor grade. Sequencing of the CNTFRα coding regions was performed for mutation analysis. Finally, antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity was used to establish the role of CNTFRα as a potential immunotherapeutic target. RESULTS: Ciliary neurotrophic factor receptor subunit-α expression was increased in tumor-initiating cells and was decreased in the cells' differentiated progeny, and expression levels increased with glioma grade. Mutations of CNTFRα are not common in gliomas. Functional studies using CNTF treatment in glioma tumor-initiating cells showed induction of differentiation through the CNTFRα pathway. Treatment with anti-CNTFRα antibody resulted in increased antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity in CNTFRα expressing DAOY cells but not in cell lines that lack CNTFRα. CONCLUSIONS: These data indicate that CNTFRα plays a role in the formation or maintenance of tumor-initiating cells in gliomas, is a marker that correlates with histological grade, may underlie treatment resistance in some cases, and is a potential therapeutic target.

Targeted tissue proteomic analysis of human astrocytomas.

Complicating proteomic analysis of whole tissues is the obvious problem of cell heterogeneity in tissues, which often results in misleading or confusing molecular findings. Thus, the coupling of tissue microdissection for tumor cell enrichment with capillary isotachophoresis-based selective analyte concentration not only serves as a synergistic strategy to characterize low abundance proteins, but it can also be employed to conduct comparative proteomic studies of human astrocytomas. A set of fresh frozen brain biopsies were selectively microdissected to provide an enriched, high quality, and reproducible sample of tumor cells. Despite sharing many common proteins, there are significant differences in the protein expression level among different grades of astrocytomas. A large number of proteins, such as plasma membrane proteins EGFR and Erbb2, are up-regulated in glioblastoma. Besides facilitating the prioritization of follow-on biomarker selection and validation, comparative proteomics involving measurements in changes of pathways are expected to reveal the molecular relationships among different pathological grades of gliomas and potential molecular mechanisms that drive gliomagenesis.

Oncoproteomic analysis reveals co-upregulation of RELA and STAT5 in carboplatin resistant ovarian carcinoma.

BACKGROUND: Ovarian cancer is one of the most lethal types of female malignancy. Although most patients are initially responsive to platinum-based chemotherapy, almost all develop recurrent chemoresistant tumors and succumb to their diseases. Elucidating the pathogenesis underlying drug resistance is fundamental to the development of new therapeutics, leading to improved clinical outcomes in these patients. METHODS AND FINDINGS: We compared the proteomes of paired primary and recurrent post-chemotherapy ovarian high-grade serous carcinomas from nine ovarian cancer patients using CIEF/Nano-RPLC coupled with ESI-Tandem MS. As compared to their primary tumors, more than half of the recurrent tumors expressed higher levels of several proteins including CP, FN1, SYK, CD97, AIF1, WNK1, SERPINA3, APOD, URP2, STAT5B and RELA (NF-kappaB p65), which were also validated by quantitative RT-PCR. Based on shRNA screening for the upregulated genes in in vitro carboplatin-resistant cells, we found that simultaneous knockdown of RELA and STAT5B was most effective in sensitizing tumor cells for carboplatin treatment. Similarly, the NF-kappaB inhibitor, BMS-345541, and the STAT5 inhibitor, Dasatinib, significantly enhanced cell sensitivity to carboplatin. Moreover, both RELA and STAT5 are known to bind to the promoter region of Bcl-X, regulating its promoter activity. In this regard, augmented Bcl-xL expression was detected in carboplatin-resistant cells. Combined ectopic expression of RELA and STAT5B enhanced Bcl-xL promoter activity while treatment with BMS-345541 and Dasatinib decreased it. Chromatin immunoprecipitation of the Bcl-X promoter region using a STAT5 antibody showed induction of RELA and STAT5 DNA-binding segments both in naïve cells treated with a high concentration of carboplatin as well as in carboplatin-resistant cells. CONCLUSIONS: Proteomic analysis identified RELA and STAT5 as two major proteins associated with carboplatin resistance in ovarian tumors. Our results further showed that NF-kappaB and STAT5 inhibitor could sensitize carboplatin-resistant cells and suggest that such inhibitors can be used to benefit patients with carboplatin-resistant recurrent ovarian cancer.

Recent advances in capillary electrophoresis-based proteomic techniques for biomarker discovery.

A compelling need exists for the development of technologies that facilitate and accelerate the discovery of novel protein biomarkers with therapeutic and diagnostic potential. The inherent disadvantage of biomarker dilution in complex biological fluids such as serum/plasma, urine, and saliva necessitates highly sensitive analytical approaches, often exceeding the dynamic range of currently available proteomic platforms. Thus, investigative studies directed at tissues obtained from the primary site of pathology probably afford the best opportunity for the discovery of disease biomarkers. This review therefore focuses on the most recent advances in capillary electrophoresis-based single and multidimensional separations coupled with ESI-MS for performing comprehensive and comparative analysis of protein expression profiles within clinical specimens. Advanced sample preparation techniques, including tissue microdissection, detergent-based membrane protein extraction, and heat-induced protein retrieval, further enable targeted protein profiling of both fresh-frozen, formalin-fixed, and paraffin-embedded tissues. Comparative proteomics involving measurements in changes of biological pathways or functional processes are expected to provide relevant disease-associated markers and networks, molecular relationships among different stages of disease, and molecular mechanisms that drive the progression of disease. From a practical perspective, the evaluation of comparative proteomic dataset within a biological context is essential for high-throughput data validation, prioritization of follow-on biomarker selection, and validation experiments.

Comparison of multidimensional shotgun technologies targeting tissue proteomics.

A compelling need exists for the development of technologies that facilitate and accelerate the discovery of novel protein biomarkers with therapeutic and diagnostic potential. Comparisons among shotgun proteome technologies, including capillary isotachophoresis (CITP)-based multidimensional separations and multidimensional LC system, are therefore performed in this study regarding their abilities to address the challenges of protein complexity and relative abundance inherent in glioblastoma multiforme-derived cancer stem cells. Comparisons are conducted using a single processed protein digest with equal sample loading, identical second-dimension separation (RPLC) and MS conditions, and consistent search parameters and cutoff established by the target-decoy determined false-discovery rate. Besides achieving superior overall proteome performance in total peptide, distinct peptide, and distinct protein identifications; analytical reproducibility of the CITP proteome platform coupled with the spectral counting approach are determined by a Pearson R(2) value of 0.98 and a CV of 15% across all proteins quantified. In contrast, extensive fraction overlapping in strong cation exchange greatly limits the ability of multidimensional LC separations for mining deeper into the tissue proteome as evidenced by the poor coverage in various protein functional categories and key protein pathways. The CITP proteomic technology, equipped with selective analyte enrichment and ultrahigh resolving power, is expected to serve as a critical component in the overall toolset required for biomarker discovery via shotgun proteomic analysis of tissue specimens.

Systematic comparison of the human saliva and plasma proteomes.

The proteome of human salivary fluid has the potential to open new doors for disease biomarker discovery. A recent study to comprehensively identify and catalog the human ductal salivary proteome led to the compilation of 1166 proteins. The protein complexity of both saliva and plasma is large, suggesting that a comparison of these two proteomes will provide valuable insight into their physiological significance and an understanding of the unique and overlapping disease diagnostic potential that each fluid provides. To create a more comprehensive catalog of human salivary proteins, we have first compiled an extensive list of proteins from whole saliva (WS) identified through MS experiments. The WS list is thereafter combined with the proteins identified from the ductal parotid, and submandibular and sublingual (parotid/SMSL) salivas. In parallel, a core dataset of the human plasma proteome with 3020 protein identifications was recently released. A total of 1939 nonredundant salivary proteins were compiled from a total of 19 474 unique peptide sequences identified from whole and ductal salivas; 740 out of the total 1939 salivary proteins were identified in both whole and ductal saliva. A total of 597 of the salivary proteins have been observed in plasma. Gene ontology (GO) analysis showed similarities in the distributions of the saliva and plasma proteomes with regard to cellular localization, biological processes, and molecular function, but revealed differences which may be related to the different physiological functions of saliva and plasma. The comprehensive catalog of the salivary proteome and its comparison to the plasma proteome provides insights useful for future study, such as exploration of potential biomarkers for disease diagnostics.

Capillary isoelectric focusing/reversed phase liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry.

The vast number of proteins present in the proteome of a typical organism requires that separations be performed on the mixture prior to introduction into a mass spectrometer for protein identification and quantification. An integrated protein separation platform, combining capillary isoelectric focusing (CIEF) with reversed phase liquid chromatography (RPLC), is described to provide high resolving power for the analysis of complex protein mixtures. Thus, the proteins are systematically resolved according to their differences in isoelectric point and hydrophobicity using combined CIEF/RPLC separations. A key feature of the CIEF-based multidimensional separation platform is the elimination of protein loss and dilution in an integrated platform while achieving comprehensive and ultrasensitive analysis of protein profiles within small cell populations or limited tissue samples.

Evaluation of archival time on shotgun proteomics of formalin-fixed and paraffin-embedded tissues.

There is increasing acceptance of the critical importance of correlating the morphologic features of tissue with the data obtained from various molecular analytic techniques. Access to archived formalin-fixed and paraffin-embedded (FFPE) tissue specimens via shotgun-based proteomic analyses may, therefore, open new avenues for both prospective and retrospective translational research. However, one of the remaining issues in performing comparative proteomic measurements among FFPE tissues relates to potential variability in protein composition and retrieval based on length of storage periods. Optimized protein extraction and digestion procedures for handling FFPE tissues are coupled with the capillary isotachophoresis-based proteome technology to evaluate the effects of length of storage period on archival tissue proteome analysis across 10 archived uterine mesenchymal tumor tissue blocks, including 9 uterine leiomyomas dating from 1990 to 2002 and a single case of alveolar soft part sarcoma (ASPS) from 1980. Several statistical measures, including the Pearson correlation coefficient, coefficient of variance, k-means clustering, and ANOVA, are employed to evaluate the possibility of an archival effect on individual proteins or groups of proteins within nine leiomyomas. Low abundance proteins may be more susceptible to the long-term storage as these proteins are more difficult to be retrieved and extracted as the tissue block ages in paraffin. Despite using tissue blocks stored for as many as 28 years, high confidence and comparative proteome analysis between the leiomyomas and the sarcoma is achieved. Though sharing over 1800 common proteins in a core set, a total of 80 proteins unique to the sarcoma are identified distinguishing the ASPS from the leiomyomas. Vacuolar proton translocating ATPase 116 kDa subunit isoform a3, one of the unique proteins expressed in the ASPS, is further validated by immunohistochemistry (IHC). Although IHC is highly sensitive and provides the subcellular resolution, mass spectrometry-based proteome profiling enables global identification and quantification of thousands of proteins without a priori knowledge of individual proteins being analyzed or the need of validated antibodies.

Differential expression of the regulated catecholamine secretory pathway in different hereditary forms of pheochromocytoma.

Pheochromocytomas in patients with von Hippel-Lindau (VHL) syndrome and multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2 (MEN 2) differ in the types and amounts of catecholamines produced and the resulting signs and symptoms. We hypothesized the presence of different processes of catecholamine release reflecting differential expression of components of the regulated secretory pathway among the two types of hereditary tumors. Differences in catecholamine secretion from tumors in patients with VHL syndrome (n = 47) and MEN 2 (n = 32) were examined using measurements of catecholamines in tumor tissue, urine, and plasma, the last of which was under baseline conditions in all subjects and in a subgroup of patients who received intravenous glucagon to provoke catecholamine release. Microarray and proteomics analyses, quantitative PCR, and Western blotting were used to assess expression of tumor tissue secretory pathway components. The rate constant for baseline catecholamine secretion was 20-fold higher in VHL than in MEN 2 tumors (0.359 +/- 0.094 vs. 0.018 +/- 0.009 day(-1)), but catecholamine release was responsive only to glucagon in MEN 2 tumors. Compared with tumors from MEN 2 patients, those from VHL patients were characterized by reduced expression of numerous components of the regulated secretory pathway (e.g., SNAP25, syntaxin, rabphilin 3A, annexin A7, calcium-dependent secretion activator). The mutation-dependent differences in expression of secretory pathway components indicate a more mature regulated secretory pathway in MEN 2 than VHL tumors. These data provide a unique mechanistic link to explain how variations in the molecular machinery governing exocytosis may contribute to clinical differences in the secretion of neurotransmitters or hormones and the subsequent presentation of a disease.

Evaluation of confidence and reproducibility in quantitative proteomics performed by a capillary isoelectric focusing-based proteomic platform coupled with a spectral counting approach.

Multidimensional separations of the peptides resulting from enzymatic digestions of complex protein mixtures prior to MS/MS, namely shotgun proteomics, is increasingly utilized for large-scale identification and quantitation of proteins. Inherent to the performance of proteomic measurements is the resolving power of each of the separations both separately and in combination. By simply raising the number of CIEF fractions, the resulting enhancement in the overall peak capacity of combined CIEF/nano-RPLC separations greatly reduces the complexity of eluted peptides prior to MS detection and sequencing and increases the proteome coverage. The capabilities of the CIEF-based proteome platform coupled with the spectral counting approach to confidently and reproducibly quantify proteins and changes in protein expression levels among samples are evaluated. Analytical reproducibility of relative protein abundance is determined to exhibit a Pearson R(2) value greater than 0.99 and a CV of 14.1%. The platform is demonstrated to be capable of measuring changes in protein expression as low as 1.5-fold, with confidence following multiple testing adjustment.

Application of capillary isotachophoresis-based multidimensional separations coupled with electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry for characterization of mouse brain mitochondrial proteome.

By employing a capillary ITP (CITP)/CZE-based proteomic technology, a total of 1795 distinct mouse Swiss-Prot protein entries (or 1705 nonredundant proteins) are identified from synaptic mitochondria isolated from mouse brain. The ultrahigh resolving power of CITP/CZE is evidenced by the large number of distinct peptide identifications measured from each CITP fraction together with the low peptide fraction overlapping among identified peptides. The degree of peptide overlapping among CITP fractions is even lower than that achieved using combined CIEF/nano-RP LC separations for the analysis of the same mitochondrial sample. When evaluating the protein sequence coverage by the number of distinct peptides mapping to each mitochondrial protein identification, CITP/CZE similarly achieves superior performance with 1041 proteins (58%) having 3 or more distinct peptides, 233 (13%) having 2 distinct peptides, and 521 (29%) having a single distinct peptide. The reproducibility of protein identifications is found to be around 86% by comparing proteins identified from repeated runs of the same mitochondrial sample. The analysis of the mouse mitochondrial proteome by two CITP/CZE runs results in the detection of 2095 distinct mouse Swiss-Prot protein entries (or 1992 nonredundant proteins), corresponding to 59% coverage of the updated Maestro mitochondrial reference set. The collective analysis from combined CITP/CZE and CIEF-based proteomic studies yields the identification of 2191 distinct mitochondrial protein entries (or 2082 nonredundant proteins), corresponding to 76% coverage of the MitoP2-database reference set.

Antigen retrieval for proteomic characterization of formalin-fixed and paraffin-embedded tissues.

Formalin-fixed and paraffin-embedded tissues represent the vast majority of archived tissue. Access to such tissue specimens via shotgun-based proteomic analyses may open new avenues for both prospective and retrospective translational research. In this study, we evaluate the effects of fixation time on antigen retrieval for the purposes of shotgun proteomics. For the first time, we demonstrate the capability of a capillary isotachophoresis (CITP)-based proteomic platform for the shotgun proteomic analysis of proteins recovered from FFPE tissues. In comparison to our previous studies utilizing capillary isoelectric focusing, the CITP-based analysis is more robust and increases proteome coverage. In this case, results from three FFPE liver tissues yield a total of 4098 distinct Swiss-Prot identifications at a 1% false-discovery rate. To judge the accuracy of these assignments, immunohistochemistry is performed on a panel of 17 commonly assayed proteins. These proteins span a wide range of protein abundances as inferred from relative quantitation via spectral counting. Among the panel were 4 proteins identified by a single peptide hit, including three clusters of differentiation (CD) markers: CD74, CD117, and CD45. Because single peptide hits are often regarded with skepticism, it is notable that all proteins tested by IHC stained positive.

Identification of a novel proliferation-related protein, WHSC1 4a, in human gliomas.

Dynamic changes in the expression of multiple genes appear to be common features that distinguish transformed cells from their normal counterparts. We compared the proteomic profiles of four glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) tissue samples and four normal brain cortex samples to examine the molecular basis of gliomagenesis. Trypsin-digested protein samples were separated by capillary isoelectric focusing with nano-reversed-phase liquid chromatography and were profiled by mass spectrometric sequencing. Wolf-Hirschhorn syndrome candidate 1 (WHSC1), along with 103 other proteins, was found only in the GBM proteomes. Western blot and immunohistochemistry verified our proteomic findings and demonstrated that 30-kDa WHSC1 expression increases with ascending tumor proliferation activity. RNA interference could suppress glioma cell growth by blocking WHSC1 expression. Our novel findings encourage the application of proteomic techniques in cancer research.

Comparison of electrokinetics-based multidimensional separations coupled with electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry for characterization of human salivary proteins.

The foundation for saliva-based diagnostics is the development of a complete catalog of secreted proteins detectable in saliva. Besides protein complexity, the greatest bioanalytical challenge facing comprehensive analysis of saliva samples is related to the large variation of protein relative abundances including the presence of high-abundance proteins such as amylases, mucins, proline-rich proteins (PRPs), and secretory IgA complex. Among a number of electrokinetic separation techniques, transient capillary isotachophoresis/capillary zone electrophoresis (CITP/CZE) specifically targets trace amounts of proteins and thus reduces the range of relative protein abundances for providing unparallel advantages toward the identification of low-abundance proteins. By employing a CITP/CZE-based multidimensional separation platform coupled with electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry (ESI-tandem MS), a total of 6112 fully tryptic peptides are sequenced at a 1% false discovery rate (FDR), leading to the identification of 1479 distinct human SwissProt protein entries. By comparing with capillary isoelectric focusing (CIEF) as another electrokinetics-based stacking approach, CITP/CZE not only offers a broad field of application but also is less prone to protein/peptide precipitation during the analysis. The ultrahigh resolving power of CITP/CZE is evidenced by the large number of distinct peptide identifications measured from each CITP fraction together with the low peptide fraction overlapping among identified peptides. Furthermore, when evaluating the protein sequence coverage by the number of distinct peptides mapping to each protein identification, the CITP-based proteome technology similarly achieves the superior performance with 674 proteins (46%) having three or more distinct peptides, 288 (19%) having two distinct peptides, and 517 (35%) having a single distinct peptide.

Comparative evaluation of tandem MS search algorithms using a target-decoy search strategy.

Peptide identification of tandem mass spectra by a variety of available search algorithms forms the foundation for much of modern day mass spectrometry-based proteomics. Despite the critical importance of proper evaluation and interpretation of the results generated by these algorithms there is still little consistency in their application or understanding of their similarities and differences. A survey was conducted of four tandem mass spectrometry peptide identification search algorithms, including Mascot, Open Mass Spectrometry Search Algorithm, Sequest, and X! Tandem. The same input data, search parameters, and sequence library were used for the searches. Comparisons were based on commonly used scoring methodologies for each algorithm and on the results of a target-decoy approach to sequence library searching. The results indicated that there is little difference in the output of the algorithms so long as consistent scoring procedures are applied. The results showed that some commonly used scoring procedures may lead to excessive false discovery rates. Finally an alternative method for the determination of an optimal cutoff threshold is proposed.

Proteome analysis of microdissected formalin-fixed and paraffin-embedded tissue specimens.

Targeted proteomics research, based on the enrichment of disease-relevant proteins from isolated cell populations selected from high-quality tissue specimens, offers great potential for the identification of diagnostic, prognostic, and predictive biological markers for use in the clinical setting and during preclinical testing and clinical trials, as well as for the discovery and validation of new protein drug targets. Formalin-fixed and paraffin-embedded (FFPE) tissue collections, with attached clinical and outcome information, are invaluable resources for conducting retrospective protein biomarker investigations and performing translational studies of cancer and other diseases. Combined capillary isoelectric focusing/nano-reversed-phase liquid chromatography separations equipped with nano-electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry are employed for the studies of proteins extracted from microdissected FFPE glioblastoma tissues using a heat-induced antigen retrieval (AR) technique. A total of 14,478 distinct peptides are identified, leading to the identification of 2733 non-redundant SwissProt protein entries. Eighty-three percent of identified FFPE tissue proteins overlap with those obtained from the pellet fraction of fresh-frozen tissue of the same patient. This large degree of protein overlapping is attributed to the application of detergent-based protein extraction in both the cell pellet preparation protocol and the AR technique.

Comprehensive yeast proteome analysis using a capillary isoelectric focusing-based multidimensional separation platform coupled with ESI-MS/MS.

As demonstrated in this study, a CIEF-based multidimensional separation platform not only is compatible with the detergent-based membrane protein preparation protocol, but also achieves both the largest yeast membrane proteome coverage and the most comprehensive analysis of the yeast proteome to date. By using a 1% false discovery rate for total peptide identifications, a total of 2513 distinct yeast proteins are identified from the SDS-solubilized fraction with an average of 5.4 peptides leading to each protein identification. Among proteins identified from the SDS-solubilized fraction, 407 proteins are predicted to contain at least two or more transmembrane domains using TMHMM (www.cbs.dtu.dk/services/TMHMM-2.0/), corresponding to 46% yeast membrane proteome coverage. Only four additional membrane proteins are identified in the soluble and urea-solubilized fractions, affirming the utility of SDS extraction for enriching the membrane proteome. By combining proteome results obtained from the soluble, urea-solubilized, and SDS-solubilized fractions, a single yeast proteome analysis yields the identification of 3632 distinct yeast proteins, corresponding to 55% theoretical yeast proteome coverage or 70% of proteins predicted to be expressed during log-phase growth in rich media.

Membrane proteome analysis of microdissected ovarian tumor tissues using capillary isoelectric focusing/reversed-phase liquid chromatography-tandem MS.

This work expands our tissue proteome capabilities from the analysis of soluble proteins in previous studies to the examination of membrane proteins within the pellets of enriched and selectively isolated tumor cells procured from microdissected tissue specimens. The pellets of targeted ovarian tumor cells are treated by two different membrane protein extraction methods, including the use of detergent and organic solvent. The detergent-based membrane protein preparation protocol not only extracts proteins effectively from cell pellets but also is compatible with subsequent proteome analysis using combined capillary isoelctric focusing/nano reversed-phase liquid chromatography separations coupled with nano electrospray ionization mass spectrometry. Among proteins identified from an amount of pellet equivalent to 20 000 cells, 773 proteins are predicted to contain one or more transmembrane domains, corresponding to 22% membrane proteome coverage within the SwissProt Human protein sequence entries.