Fungemia by Wickerhamomyces anomalus-A Narrative Review.

Wickerhamomyces anomalus has been previously classified as Hansenula anomala, Pichia anomala, and Candida pelliculosa and was recently reclassified in the genus Wickerhamomyces after phylogenetic analysis of its genetic sequence. An increasing number of reports of human infections by W. anomalus have emerged, suggesting that this microorganism is an emerging pathogen. The present review aimed to provide data on the epidemiology, antifungal resistance, clinical characteristics, treatment, and outcomes of fungemia by W. anomalus by extracting all the available information from published original reports in the literature. PubMed/Medline, Cochrane Library, and Scopus databases were searched for eligible articles reporting data on patients with this disease. In total, 36 studies involving 170 patients were included. The age of patients with fungemia by W. anomalus ranged from 0 to 89 years; the mean age was 22.8 years, the median age was 2.2 years, with more than 37 patients being less than one month old, and 54% (88 out of 163 patients) were male. Regarding patients' history, 70.4% had a central venous catheter use (CVC), 28.7% were on total parenteral nutrition (TPN), 97% of neonates were hospitalized in the neonatal ICU (NICU), and 39.4% of the rest of the patients were hospitalized in the intensive care unit (ICU). Previous antimicrobial use was noted in 65.9% of patients. The most common identification method was the matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) in 34.1%, VITEK and VITEK 2 in 20.6%, and ID32 C in 15.3%. W. anomalus had minimal antifungal resistance to fluconazole, echinocandins, and amphotericin B, the most commonly used antifungals for treatment. Fever and sepsis were the most common clinical presentation noted in 95.8% and 86%, respectively. Overall mortality was 20% and was slightly higher in patients older than one year. Due to the rarity of this disease, future multicenter studies should be performed to adequately characterize patients' characteristics, treatment, and outcomes, which will increase our understanding and allow drawing safer conclusions regarding optimal management.

Infective Endocarditis by Capnocytophaga Species-A Narrative Review.

Bacteria belonging to the genus Capnocytophaga are thin, capnophilic, Gram-negative bacilli with tapered ends that include nine species that are isolated from the mouth of humans and animals and, from a phylogenetical perspective, they belong to the family Flavobacteriaceae. Two more species, namely C. endodontalis and C. stomatis have been recovered from a periapical abscess and human and animal infections, respectively. Capnocytophaga spp. can cause serious and potentially life-threatening infections in humans, such as bacteremia and meningitis, most commonly in the context of penetrating trauma as a result of contact with animals, especially after animal bites. Other invasive diseases such as osteomyelitis, septic arthritis, and infective endocarditis (IE) may also occur more rarely. The aim of this study was to review all previously described cases of IE by Capnocytophaga spp. and provide information about the epidemiology, microbiology, antimicrobial susceptibility, clinical characteristics, treatment, and outcomes of this infection. A narrative review based on a search in PubMed, the Cochrane Library, and Scopus was performed. Studies published until 11 September 2023 providing relevant data for IE caused by Capnocytophaga spp. in humans were included. A total of 31 studies containing data from 31 patients were included. A history of dog bites was present in 10 out of 26 patients (38.5%). A prosthetic valve was present in 3 patients (9.7%). The most commonly infected valve was the aortic valve, followed by the tricuspid valve. Fever, embolic phenomena, paravalvular abscess, and sepsis were the most common clinical presentations. Beta-lactams and aminoglycosides were the antimicrobials most commonly used. Surgery was performed in 20 patients (64.5%). Overall mortality reached 16.1%.

Nanotechnology in the Diagnosis and Treatment of Antibiotic-Resistant Infections.

The development of antimicrobial resistance (AMR), along with the relative reduction in the production of new antimicrobials, significantly limits the therapeutic options in infectious diseases. Thus, novel treatments, especially in the current era, where AMR is increasing, are urgently needed. There are several ongoing studies on non-classical therapies for infectious diseases, such as bacteriophages, antimicrobial peptides, and nanotechnology, among others. Nanomaterials involve materials on the nanoscale that could be used in the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of infectious diseases. This review provides an overview of the applications of nanotechnology in the diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases from a clinician's perspective, with a focus on pathogens with AMR. Applications of nanomaterials in diagnosis, by taking advantage of their electrochemical, optic, magnetic, and fluorescent properties, are described. Moreover, the potential of metallic or organic nanoparticles (NPs) in the treatment of infections is also addressed. Finally, the potential use of NPs in the development of safe and efficient vaccines is also reviewed. Further studies are needed to prove the safety and efficacy of NPs that would facilitate their approval by regulatory authorities for clinical use.

Infective Endocarditis by Lactobacillus Species-A Narrative Review.

Bacteria of the genus Lactobacillus are microaerophilic or aerotolerant anaerobic Gram-positive non-spore-forming rods. They are considered essential members of the human gut microbiome; however, recent studies have revealed that these microorganisms are less predominant in the gut microbiome than initially thought. Lactobacillus spp. is mainly known for its use as a probiotic in foods and supplements to prevent and treat specific issues such as infectious diseases, irritable bowel syndrome, and diabetes mellitus. However, Lactobacillus spp. may occasionally cause infections such as bacteremia or infective endocarditis (IE). The present study aimed to review all cases of IE by Lactobacillus spp. and describe the epidemiology, microbiology, clinical characteristics, treatment, and outcomes of this infection by collecting relevant data from studies existing in Pubmed and Scopus until 28 September 2023. A total of 77 studies containing data for 82 patients were included. The median age was 56 years, and 69.6% were male. A prosthetic valve was present in 16% of patients, and 17.3% had previously been on probiotics. The aortic valve was the most commonly involved intracardiac site, followed by the mitral valve. Fever, embolic phenomena, sepsis, and heart failure were the most common clinical presentations. Aminoglycosides and penicillin were the most commonly used antimicrobials for definitive treatment. Surgery was performed in 53.7% of patients. Overall mortality was 17.1%. IE in prosthetic valves and presentation with shock were independently associated with overall mortality.

Long COVID-19 Pathophysiology: What Do We Know So Far?

Long COVID-19 is a recognized entity that affects millions of people worldwide. Its broad clinical symptoms include thrombotic events, brain fog, myocarditis, shortness of breath, fatigue, muscle pains, and others. Due to the binding of the virus with ACE-2 receptors, expressed in many organs, it can potentially affect any system; however, it most often affects the cardiovascular, central nervous, respiratory, and immune systems. Age, high body mass index, female sex, previous hospitalization, and smoking are some of its risk factors. Despite great efforts to define its pathophysiology, gaps remain to be explained. The main mechanisms described in the literature involve viral persistence, hypercoagulopathy, immune dysregulation, autoimmunity, hyperinflammation, or a combination of these. The exact mechanisms may differ from system to system, but some share the same pathways. This review aims to describe the most prevalent pathophysiological pathways explaining this syndrome.

Telomere length as a predictive biomarker in osteoporosis (Review).

Telomeres are the ends of chromosomes that protect them from DNA damage. There is evidence to suggest that telomere shortening appears with advanced age. Since aging is a significant risk factor for developing age-related complications, it is plausible that telomere shortening may be involved in the development of osteoporosis. The present review summarizes the potential of telomere shortening as a biomarker for detecting the onset of osteoporosis. For the purposes of the present review, the following scientific databases were searched for relevant articles: PubMed/NCBI, Cochrane Library of Systematic Reviews, Scopus, Embase and Google Scholar. The present review includes randomized and non-randomized controlled studies and case series involving humans, irrespective of the time of their publication. In six out of the 11 included studies providing data on humans, there was at least a weak association between telomere length and osteoporosis, with the remaining studies exhibiting no such association. As a result, telomere shortening may be used as a biomarker or as part of a panel of biomarkers for tracking the onset and progression of osteoporosis.

Kocuria Species Infections in Humans-A Narrative Review.

Kocuria species are catalase-positive and coagulase-negative Gram-positive coccoid bacteria that belong to the family Micrococcaceae, order Actinomycetales, and class Actinobacteria. Even though they may be relatively rare, they have been increasingly reported as the causes of human infections lately. The present study aims to review all published cases of Kocuria spp. infections in humans reporting data on epidemiology, microbiology, antimicrobial susceptibility, antimicrobial treatment, and mortality. A narrative review was performed based on a search of Pubmed and Scopus databases in the literature. In total, 73 studies provided data on 102 patients with Kocuria spp. infections. The mean age of patients was 47 years, and 68.3% were male. The most common types of infection were bacteremia (36.3%), skin and soft tissue infection (18.6%), endophthalmitis (15.7%), infective endocarditis (13.7%), and peritonitis (11.8%), most commonly peritoneal-dialysis-associated. The most frequently isolated species was K. kristinae (46.1%), and antimicrobial resistance was lower for vancomycin (7%) and tetracyclines (6.7%). Vancomycin (47%), cephalosporins (39.6%), and quinolones (36.6%) were the most commonly used antimicrobials. The empirical antimicrobial treatment of Kocuria spp. infections should include vancomycin as long as antimicrobial susceptibility results are pending. The infection outcome mainly depends on the type of infection and is higher for infective endocarditis. Endophthalmitis is associated with increased rates of low visual acuity after treatment.

Antimicrobial Peptides in Infectious Diseases and Beyond-A Narrative Review.

Despite recent medical research and clinical practice developments, the development of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) significantly limits therapeutics for infectious diseases. Thus, novel treatments for infectious diseases, especially in this era of increasing AMR, are urgently needed. There is ongoing research on non-classical therapies for infectious diseases utilizing alternative antimicrobial mechanisms to fight pathogens, such as bacteriophages or antimicrobial peptides (AMPs). AMPs are evolutionarily conserved molecules naturally produced by several organisms, such as plants, insects, marine organisms, and mammals, aiming to protect the host by fighting pathogenic microorganisms. There is ongoing research regarding developing AMPs for clinical use in infectious diseases. Moreover, AMPs have several other non-medical applications in the food industry, such as preservatives, animal husbandry, plant protection, and aquaculture. This review focuses on AMPs, their origins, biology, structure, mechanisms of action, non-medical applications, and clinical applications in infectious diseases.

Bacteriophages in Infectious Diseases and Beyond-A Narrative Review.

The discovery of antibiotics has revolutionized medicine and has changed medical practice, enabling successful fighting of infection. However, quickly after the start of the antibiotic era, therapeutics for infectious diseases started having limitations due to the development of antimicrobial resistance. Since the antibiotic pipeline has largely slowed down, with few new compounds being produced in the last decades and with most of them belonging to already-existing classes, the discovery of new ways to treat pathogens that are resistant to antibiotics is becoming an urgent need. To that end, bacteriophages (phages), which are already used in some countries in agriculture, aquaculture, food safety, and wastewater plant treatments, could be also used in clinical practice against bacterial pathogens. Their discovery one century ago was followed by some clinical studies that showed optimistic results that were limited, however, by some notable obstacles. However, the rise of antibiotics during the next decades left phage research in an inactive status. In the last decades, new studies on phages have shown encouraging results in animals. Hence, further studies in humans are needed to confirm their potential for effective and safe treatment in cases where there are few or no other viable therapeutic options. This study reviews the biology and applications of phages for medical and non-medical uses in a narrative manner.

Whipple's disease-associated infective endocarditis: a systematic review.

Whipple's disease is an uncommon chronic systemic disease caused by Tropheryma whippelii. The most characteristic findings of late Whipple's disease include diarrhoea, abdominal pain, weight loss, and arthralgias, however, other clinical findings can occur, including lymphadenopathy, fever, neurologic manifestations, myocarditis and endocarditis. The aim of the present study was to systematically review all cases of Whipple's disease-associated infective endocarditis (IE) in the literature. A systematic review of PubMed, Scopus, and Cochrane Library (all published studies up to 28 May 2022) for studies providing data on epidemiology, clinical characteristics as well as data on treatment and outcomes of Whipple's disease-associated IE was performed. A total of 72 studies, containing data for 127 patients, were included. A prosthetic valve was present in 8% of patients. The aortic valve was the most commonly involved intracardiac site followed by the mitral valve. Heart failure, embolic phenomena, and fever were the most common clinical presentations, however, fever occurred in less than 30% of patients. Sepsis was rarely noted. The diagnosis was most commonly performed through pathology through positive PCR or histology in cardiac valves in 88.2% of patients. Trimethoprim with sulfamethoxazole were the most commonly used antimicrobials followed by cephalosporins and tetracyclines. Surgery was performed in 84.3% of patients. Mortality was 9.4%. A multivariate logistic regression analysis model identified presentation with sepsis or development of a paravalvular abscess to be independently associated with increased mortality, while treatment with the combination of trimethoprim with sulfamethoxazole was independently associated with reduced mortality.

Infective endocarditis by Actinomyces species: a systematic review.

Actinomycosis, is a slowly progressive infection that may mimic malignancy due to the invasiveness of tissues and the ability to form sinus tracts. Infective Endocarditis (IE) is a rare disease with significant morbidity and mortality. Interestingly, even though there are scarce data of IE by Actinomyces spp. in the literature, a review adequately summarizing all available evidence on the topic in a systematic way is lacking. The aim of this study was to systematically review all cases of IE by Actinomyces spp. in the literature and describe the epidemiology, microbiology, clinical characteristics, treatment and outcomes of this infection. A systematic review of PubMed, Scopus and Cochrane library (through 19 August 2021) for studies providing epidemiological, clinical, microbiological as well as treatment data and outcomes of IE by Actinomyces spp. was performed. A total of 31 studies providing data for 31 patients were included. A prosthetic valve was present in 12.9%, while the most common microorganism was A. meyeri. Aortic valve was the most commonly infected intracardiac site, followed by the mitral valve. Diagnosis was most commonly performed with transesophageal echocardiography, while the diagnosis was made at autopsy in 16.1%. Penicillin, cephalosporins and aminopenicillins were the most commonly used antimicrobials. Clinical cure was noted in 80.6%, while mortality was 19.4%. Development of heart failure was associated with mortality by IE. This systematic review thoroughly describes IE by Actinomyces and provides information on epidemiology, clinical presentation, treatment and outcomes.

Infective Endocarditis by Clostridioides and Clostridium Species-A Narrative Review.

Bacteria of the genus Clostridium are anaerobic Gram-positive spore-forming bacilli that include more than 200 species. Some of them are known to cause invasive infections and diseases caused by the production of toxins. Some of the diseases that are mediated by toxins are colitis in patients with specific risk factors, such as previous administration of antimicrobials or foodborne botulism. Invasive diseases include bacteremia, infective endocarditis (IE), clostridial myonecrosis (gas gangrene), and other diseases that involve the destruction of soft tissue due to the local production of toxins. The present study aimed to review all cases of IE by Clostridioides and Clostridium species and describe the epidemiology, clinical characteristics, treatment, and outcomes of these infections. A narrative review was performed based on a search in PubMed and Scopus for studies published until 11 September 2023, providing such data of IE caused by Clostridioides and Clostridium species in humans. A total of 20 studies containing data for 21 patients were included. A prosthetic valve was present in 5 patients (23.8%). The aortic valve was the most commonly involved, followed by the mitral valve. Fever, sepsis, and embolic phenomena were the most common clinical presentations. Beta-lactams and metronidazole were the most commonly used antimicrobials. Surgery was performed in nine patients (45%). Mortality reached 33.3%. IE in multiple valves was associated with increased mortality. Despite the heterogeneous genetic and molecular characteristics that necessitate the taxonomic change of some of this genus's previous members, the clinical syndrome of IE caused by these bacteria seems to have similar characteristics.

Infective Endocarditis by Pasteurella Species: A Systematic Review.

Pasteurella spp. are non-motile, facultative anaerobic, Gram-negative coccobacilli that are commonly found in the oral cavity and the gastrointestinal tract of some animals and are known to be the cause of infections. Usually, infections by Pasteurella spp. in humans is more common in the context of an animal bite leading to a skin and soft tissue infection (SSTI). Infective endocarditis (IE) is rarely caused by Pasteurella spp.; however, it can pose diagnostic and therapeutic dilemmas due to its rarity. The aim of the present study was to systematically review all cases of IE by Pasteurella spp. in the literature. A systematic review was performed of PubMed, Scopus and the Cochrane Library (through 20 December 2021) for studies providing data on epidemiology and clinical and microbiological characteristics as well as data on treatment and outcomes of IE by Pasteurella spp. A total of 28 studies containing data for 28 patients were included. Prosthetic valve was present in 21.4% of patients. The aorta was the most commonly involved intracardiac site. Fever, sepsis, septic shock and heart failure were the most common clinical presentations. Cephalosporins, aminopenicillins and penicillin were the antimicrobials used most commonly. Overall mortality was 17.9%.

Infective Endocarditis by Moraxella Species: A Systematic Review.

Moraxella catarrhalis is the most clinically relevant species among Moraxella spp. For decades, it was considered to be part of the normal human flora in the upper respiratory tract. However, since the late 1970s, considerable evidence has proposed that M. catarrhalis is an important pathogen in the human respiratory tract. Even though Infective Endocarditis (IE) is rarely caused by Moraxella spp., these infections can be problematic due to the lack of experience in their management. The aim of this study was to systematically review all published cases of IE by Moraxella spp. A systematic review of PubMed, Scopus and Cochrane library (through 8 December 2021) for studies providing epidemiological, clinical, microbiological data as well as treatment data and outcomes of IE by Moraxella spp. was performed. A total of 27 studies, containing data for 31 patients, were included. A prosthetic valve was present in 25.8%. Mitral valve was the most commonly infected site. Fever, sepsis and embolic phenomena were the most common clinical presentations. Cephalosporins, aminoglycosides, aminopenicillins and penicillin were the most commonly used antimicrobials. Overall mortality was 12.9%.

Protective role of taurine against oxidative stress (Review).

Taurine is a fundamental mediator of homeostasis that exerts multiple roles to confer protection against oxidant stress. The development of hypertension, muscle/neuro­â€‹associated disorders, hepatic cirrhosis, cardiac dysfunction and ischemia/reperfusion are examples of some injuries that are linked with oxidative stress. The present review gives a comprehensive description of all the underlying mechanisms of taurine, with the aim to explain its anti­oxidant actions. Taurine is regarded as a cytoprotective molecule due to its ability to sustain normal electron transport chain, maintain glutathione stores, upregulate anti­oxidant responses, increase membrane stability, eliminate inflammation and prevent calcium accumulation. In parallel, the synergistic effect of taurine with other potential therapeutic modalities in multiple disorders are highlighted. Apart from the results derived from research findings, the current review bridges the gap between bench and bedside, providing mechanistic insights into the biological activity of taurine that supports its potential therapeutic efficacy in clinic. In the future, further clinical studies are required to support the ameliorative effect of taurine against oxidative stress.

Infective endocarditis by Klebsiella species: a systematic review.

This study aimed to systematically analyze all cases of infective endocarditis (IE) by Klebsiella species in the literature. A systematic review of PubMed, Scopus and Cochrane library (through 27th January 2021) for studies providing epidemiological, clinical, microbiological as well as treatment data and outcomes of IE by Klebsiella species was performed. In this review, a total of 66 studies were included, providing data for 67 patients. A prosthetic valve was present in 16.4%, while the most common causative pathogen was K. pneumoniae followed by K. oxytoca. The aortic valve was the most commonly infected intracardiac site, followed by the mitral valve. The diagnosis was based on transthoracic echocardiography in 46.2%, while the diagnosis was set at autopsy in 9.2% of included patients. Blood cultures were positive in 93.8%. Fever and sepsis were the most frequent clinical presentations, followed by embolic phenomena, paravalvular abscess, and heart failure. Cephalosporins, aminoglycosides, and carbapenems were the most frequently used antimicrobials. Surgical treatment along with antimicrobials was performed in 37.3% of included patients. Clinical cure was noted in 80.3%, while the overall mortality was 19.4%. Infection at the aortic valve was independently associated with mortality by IE. This systematic review gives a comprehensive description of IE by Klebsiella and provides information on epidemiology, clinical manifestations, therapeutic strategies and their outcomes.

Infective Endocarditis by Yersinia Species: A Systematic Review.

Yersinia spp. are non-spore-forming Gram-negative bacilli. They comprise only three species known to cause disease in humans, namely Y. pestis, Y. enterocolitica and Y. pseudotuberculosis. Since infective endocarditis (IE) is rarely caused by Yersinia, the management of these infections can be problematic due to the lack of experience. The purpose of this study was to systematically review all published cases of IE by Yersinia species in the literature. A systematic review of PubMed, Scopus and Cochrane Library (through 1 November 2020) for studies providing epidemiological, clinical and microbiological information as well as data on treatment and outcomes of IE caused by Yersinia species was performed. A total of 12 studies, containing data of 12 patients, were included. A prosthetic valve was present in 17% of patients. The mitral valve was the most commonly infected site, followed by the aortic valve. Fever, sepsis and embolic phenomena were common clinical signs, followed by heart failure. Aminoglycosides, cephalosporins and quinolones were the most commonly used antimicrobials. Clinical cure was noted in 83%, while overall mortality was 17%. This systematic review describes IE by Yersinia and provides information on patients' epidemiology, clinical signs and the related therapeutic strategies and outcomes.

Bromamine T, a stable active bromine compound, prevents the LPS­induced inflammatory response.

Inflammation is the most common cause of most acute and chronic debilitating diseases. Towards unveiling novel therapeutic options for patients with such complications, N­bromotaurine (TauNHBr) has emerged as a potential anti­inflammatory agent; however, its therapeutic efficacy is hindered due to its relatively poor stability. To address this challenge, the present study focused on examining the effects of a stable active bromine compound, named bromamine T (BAT). The present study examined the protective properties of BAT against lipopolysaccharide (LPS)­mediated inflammation in vitro, by using LPS­stimulated murine J774.A1 macrophages (Mφs), as well as in vivo, by using a murine LPS­mediated air­pouch model. Additionally, its efficacy was compared with that of taurine, a known potent anti­inflammatory molecule. In LPS­stimulated J774A.1 Mφs, BAT and taurine were very effective in reducing the secretion of pro­inflammatory mediators. The in vitro experiments indicated that LPS­mediated inflammation was attenuated due to the protective properties of BAT and of taurine, probably through the inhibition of phosphorylated p65 NF­κB subunit (Ser 536) nuclear translocation. The in vivo experiments also revealed that BAT and taurine inhibited LPS­mediated inflammation by reducing total cell/polymorphonuclear cell (PMN) infiltration in the air­pouch and by decreasing pouch wall thickness. The analysis of exudates obtained from pouches highlighted that the inhibitory effects of BAT and taurine on the secretion of pro­inflammatory cytokines were similar to those observed in vitro. Notably, the effect of BAT at the highest concentration tested was superior to that of taurine at the highest concentration. Taken together, the findings of the present study indicate that BAT prevents the LPS­induced inflammatory response both in vitro and in vivo.

Bromamine T (BAT) Exerts Stronger Anti-Cancer Properties than Taurine (Tau).

BACKGROUND: Taurine (Tau) ameliorates cancer pathogenesis. Researchers have focused on the functional properties of bromamine T (BAT), a stable active bromine molecule. Both N-bromotaurine (TauNHBr) and BAT exert potent anti-inflammatory properties, but the landscape remains obscure concerning the anti-cancer effect of BAT. METHODS: We used Crystal Violet, colony formation, flow cytometry and Western blot experiments to evaluate the effect of BAT and Tau on the apoptosis and autophagy of cancer cells. Xenograft experiments were used to determine the in vivo cytotoxicity of either agent. RESULTS: We demonstrated that both BAT and Tau inhibited the growth of human colon, breast, cervical and skin cancer cell lines. Among them, BAT exerted the greatest cytotoxic effect on both RKO and MDA-MB-468 cells. In particular, BAT increased the phosphorylation of c-Jun N-terminal kinases (JNK½), p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), and extracellular-signal-regulated kinases (ERK½), thereby inducing mitochondrial apoptosis and autophagy in RKO cells. In contrast, Tau exerted its cytotoxic effect by upregulating JNK½ forms, thus triggering mitochondrial apoptosis in RKO cells. Accordingly, colon cancer growth was impaired in vivo. CONCLUSIONS: BAT and Tau exerted their anti-tumor properties through the induction of (i) mitochondrial apoptosis, (ii) the MAPK family, and iii) autophagy, providing novel anti-cancer therapeutic modalities.

Ameliorative effect of taurine against diabetes and renal-associated disorders (Review).

To develop novel therapeutic methods for both diabetic and renal disorders, scientists had initially focused on elucidating the molecular mechanisms of taurine in established cell lines and mouse models. Although a large amount of data have been revealed, taurine has been confirmed to be the next step of novel promising therapeutic interventions against diabetic disorders. Taurine appears to ameliorate diabetes 1-related complications in various organs through its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-hormonal actions. In type 2 diabetes, taurine has been positively implicated in glucose homeostasis, exerting potent hypoglycemic, anti-obesity, hypotensive and hypolipidemic effects. Of particular interest is that taurine provides protection against renal dysfunction, including hypertension and proteinuria, specific glomerular and tubular disorders, acute and chronic renal conditions, and diabetic nephropathy. The ameliorative effects of taurine against renal disorders are based on its osmoregulatory properties, its association with signaling pathways and its association with the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS). Further clinical studies are required to ensure the importance of research findings.