Auditory neural correlates and neuroergonomics of driving assistance in a simulated virtual environment.

Objective.Driver assistance systems play an increasingly important role in modern vehicles. In the current level of technology, the driver must continuously supervise the driving and intervene whenever necessary when using driving assistance systems. The driver's attentiveness plays an important role in this human-machine interaction. Our aim was to design a simplistic technical framework for studying neural correlates of driving situations in a functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) setting. In this work we assessed the feasibility of our proposed platform.Methods.We proposed a virtual environment (VE) simulation of driver assistance as a framework to investigate brain states related to partially automated driving. We focused on the processing of auditory signals during different driving scenarios as they have been shown to be advantageous as warning stimuli in driving situations. This provided the necessary groundwork to study brain auditory attentional networks under varying environmental demands in an fMRI setting. To this end, we conducted a study with 20 healthy participants to assess the feasibility of the VE simulation.Results.We demonstrated that the proposed VE can elicit driving related brain activation patterns. Relevant driving events evoked, in particular, responses in the bilateral auditory, sensory-motor, visual and insular cortices, which are related to perceptual and behavioral processes during driving assistance. Conceivably, attentional mechanisms increased somatosensory integration and reduced interoception, which are relevant for requesting interactions during partially automated driving.Significance.In modern vehicles, driver assistance technologies are playing an increasingly prevalent role. It is important to study the interaction between these systems and drivers' attentional responses to aid in future optimizations of the assistance systems. The proposed VE provides a foundational first step in this endeavor. Such simulated VEs provide a safe setting for experimentation with driving behaviors in a semi-naturalistic environment.

A Novel Brain-Computer Interface Virtual Environment for Neurofeedback During Functional MRI.

Virtual environments (VEs), in the recent years, have become more prevalent in neuroscience. These VEs can offer great flexibility, replicability, and control over the presented stimuli in an immersive setting. With recent developments, it has become feasible to achieve higher-quality visuals and VEs at a reasonable investment. Our aim in this project was to develop and implement a novel real-time functional magnetic resonance imaging (rt-fMRI)-based neurofeedback (NF) training paradigm, taking into account new technological advances that allow us to integrate complex stimuli into a visually updated and engaging VE. We built upon and developed a first-person shooter in which the dynamic change of the VE was the feedback variable in the brain-computer interface (BCI). We designed a study to assess the feasibility of the BCI in creating an immersive VE for NF training. In a randomized single-blinded fMRI-based NF-training session, 24 participants were randomly allocated into one of two groups: active and reduced contingency NF. All participants completed three runs of the shooter-game VE lasting 10 min each. Brain activity in a supplementary motor area region of interest regulated the possible movement speed of the player's avatar and thus increased the reward probability. The gaming performance revealed that the participants were able to actively engage in game tasks and improve across sessions. All 24 participants reported being able to successfully employ NF strategies during the training while performing in-game tasks with significantly higher perceived NF control ratings in the NF group. Spectral analysis showed significant differential effects on brain activity between the groups. Connectivity analysis revealed significant differences, showing a lowered connectivity in the NF group compared to the reduced contingency-NF group. The self-assessment manikin ratings showed an increase in arousal in both groups but failed significance. Arousal has been linked to presence, or feelings of immersion, supporting the VE's objective. Long paradigms, such as NF in MRI settings, can lead to mental fatigue; therefore, VEs can help overcome such limitations. The rewarding achievements from gaming targets can lead to implicit learning of self-regulation and may broaden the scope of NF applications.