Selective Neuronal Vulnerability in Alzheimer's Disease: A Network-Based Analysis.

A major obstacle to treating Alzheimer's disease (AD) is our lack of understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying selective neuronal vulnerability, a key characteristic of the disease. Here, we present a framework integrating high-quality neuron-type-specific molecular profiles across the lifetime of the healthy mouse, which we generated using bacTRAP, with postmortem human functional genomics and quantitative genetics data. We demonstrate human-mouse conservation of cellular taxonomy at the molecular level for neurons vulnerable and resistant in AD, identify specific genes and pathways associated with AD neuropathology, and pinpoint a specific functional gene module underlying selective vulnerability, enriched in processes associated with axonal remodeling, and affected by amyloid accumulation and aging. We have made all cell-type-specific profiles and functional networks available at http://alz.princeton.edu. Overall, our study provides a molecular framework for understanding the complex interplay between Aß, aging, and neurodegeneration within the most vulnerable neurons in AD.

Repair of Retinal Degeneration following Ex Vivo Minicircle DNA Gene Therapy and Transplantation of Corrected Photoreceptor Progenitors.

The authors describe retinal reconstruction and restoration of visual function in heritably blind mice missing the rhodopsin gene using a novel method of ex vivo gene therapy and cell transplantation. Photoreceptor precursors with the same chromosomal genetic mutation were treated ex vivo using minicircle DNA, a non-viral technique that does not present the packaging limitations of adeno-associated virus (AAV) vectors. Following transplantation, genetically modified cells reconstructed a functional retina and supported vision in blind mice harboring the same founder gene mutation. Gene delivery by minicircles showed comparable long-term efficiency to AAV in delivering the missing gene, representing the first non-viral system for robust treatment of photoreceptors. This important proof-of-concept finding provides an innovative convergence of cell and gene therapies for the treatment of hereditary neurodegenerative disease and may be applied in future studies toward ex vivo correction of patient-specific cells to provide an autologous source of tissue to replace lost photoreceptors in inherited retinal blindness. This is the first report using minicircles in photoreceptor progenitors and the first to transplant corrected photoreceptor precursors to restore vision in blind animals.

Long-term restoration of visual function in end-stage retinal degeneration using subretinal human melanopsin gene therapy.

Optogenetic strategies to restore vision in patients who are blind from end-stage retinal degenerations aim to render remaining retinal cells light sensitive once photoreceptors are lost. Here, we assessed long-term functional outcomes following subretinal delivery of the human melanopsin gene (OPN4) in the rd1 mouse model of retinal degeneration using an adeno-associated viral vector. Ectopic expression of OPN4 using a ubiquitous promoter resulted in cellular depolarization and ganglion cell action potential firing. Restoration of the pupil light reflex, behavioral light avoidance, and the ability to perform a task requiring basic image recognition were restored up to 13 mo following injection. These data suggest that melanopsin gene therapy via a subretinal route may be a viable and stable therapeutic option for the treatment of end-stage retinal degeneration in humans.

Transplanted photoreceptor precursors transfer proteins to host photoreceptors by a mechanism of cytoplasmic fusion.

Photoreceptor transplantation is a potential future treatment for blindness caused by retinal degeneration. Photoreceptor transplantation restores visual responses in end-stage retinal degeneration, but has also been assessed in non-degenerate retinas. In the latter scenario, subretinal transplantation places donor cells beneath an intact host outer nuclear layer (ONL) containing host photoreceptors. Here we show that host cells are labelled with the donor marker through cytoplasmic transfer-94±4.1% of apparently well-integrated donor cells containing both donor and host markers. We detect the occurrence of Cre-Lox recombination between donor and host photoreceptors, and we confirm the findings through FISH analysis of X and Y chromosomes in sex-discordant transplants. We do not find evidence of nuclear fusion of donor and host cells. The artefactual appearance of integrated donor cells in host retinas following transplantation is most commonly due to material transfer from donor cells. Understanding this novel mechanism may provide alternate therapeutic strategies at earlier stages of retinal degeneration.

Function of human pluripotent stem cell-derived photoreceptor progenitors in blind mice.

Photoreceptor degeneration due to retinitis pigmentosa (RP) is a primary cause of inherited retinal blindness. Photoreceptor cell-replacement may hold the potential for repair in a completely degenerate retina by reinstating light sensitive cells to form connections that relay information to downstream retinal layers. This study assessed the therapeutic potential of photoreceptor progenitors derived from human embryonic and induced pluripotent stem cells (ESCs and iPSCs) using a protocol that is suitable for future clinical trials. ESCs and iPSCs were cultured in four specific stages under defined conditions, resulting in generation of a near-homogeneous population of photoreceptor-like progenitors. Following transplantation into mice with end-stage retinal degeneration, these cells differentiated into photoreceptors and formed a cell layer connected with host retinal neurons. Visual function was partially restored in treated animals, as evidenced by two visual behavioral tests. Furthermore, the magnitude of functional improvement was positively correlated with the number of engrafted cells. Similar efficacy was observed using either ESCs or iPSCs as source material. These data validate the potential of human pluripotent stem cells for photoreceptor replacement therapies aimed at photoreceptor regeneration in retinal disease.

Single residue AAV capsid mutation improves transduction of photoreceptors in the Abca4-/- mouse and bipolar cells in the rd1 mouse and human retina ex vivo.

Gene therapy using adeno-associated viral (AAV) vectors for the treatment of retinal degenerations has shown safety and efficacy in clinical trials. However, very high levels of vector expression may be necessary for the treatment of conditions such as Stargardt disease where a dual vector approach is potentially needed, or in optogenetic strategies for end-stage degeneration in order to achieve maximal light sensitivity. In this study, we assessed two vectors with single capsid mutations, rAAV2/2(Y444F) and rAAV2/8(Y733F) in their ability to transduce retina in the Abca4-/- and rd1 mouse models of retinal degeneration. We noted significantly increased photoreceptor transduction using rAAV2/8(Y733F) in the Abca4-/- mouse, in contrast to previous work where vectors tested in this model have shown low levels of photoreceptor transduction. Bipolar cell transduction was achieved following subretinal delivery of both vectors in the rd1 mouse, and via intravitreal delivery of rAAV2/2(Y444F). The successful use of rAAV2/8(Y733F) to target bipolar cells was further validated on human tissue using an ex vivo culture system of retinal explants. Capsid mutant AAV vectors transduce human retinal cells and may be particularly suited to treat retinal degenerations in which high levels of transgene expression are required.