Habituation of the cold shock response: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

Cold water immersion (CWI) evokes the life-threatening reflex cold shock response (CSR), inducing hyperventilation, increasing cardiac arrhythmias, and increasing drowning risk by impairing safety behaviour. Repeated CWI induces CSR habituation (i.e., diminishing response with same stimulus magnitude) after ∼4 immersions, with variation between studies. We quantified the magnitude and coefficient of variation (CoV) in the CSR in a systematic review and meta-analysis with search terms entered to Medline, SportDiscus, PsychINFO, Pubmed, and Cochrane Central Register. Random effects meta-analyses, including effect sizes (Cohen's d) from 17 eligible groups (k), were conducted for heart rate (HR, n = 145, k = 17), respiratory frequency (fR, n = 73, k = 12), minute ventilation (Ve, n = 106, k = 10) and tidal volume (Vt, n = 46, k=6). All CSR variables habituated (p < 0.001) with large or moderate pooled effect sizes: ΔHR -14 (10) bt. min-1 (d: -1.19); ΔfR -8 (7) br. min-1 (d: -0.78); ΔVe, -21.3 (9.8) L. min-1 (d: -1.64); ΔVt -0.4 (0.3) L -1. Variation was greatest in Ve (control vs comparator immersion: 32.5&24.7%) compared to Vt (11.8&12.1%). Repeated CWI induces CSR habituation potentially reducing drowning risk. We consider the neurophysiological and behavioural consequences.

No effect of prefrontal transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) on food craving, food reward and subjective appetite in females displaying mild-to-moderate binge-type behaviour.

Previous work suggests there may be an effect of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) on appetite control in people at risk of overconsumption, however findings are inconsistent. This study aimed to further understand the potential eating behaviour trait-dependent effect of tDCS, specifically in those with binge-type behaviour. Seventeen females (23 ± 7 years, 25.4 ± 3.8 kg m-2) with mild-to-moderate binge eating behaviour completed two sessions of double-blind, randomised and counterbalanced anodal and sham tDCS applied over the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex at 2.0 mA for 20 min. Subjective appetite visual analogue scales (VAS), the Food Craving Questionnaire-State (FCQ-S), and Leeds Food Preference Questionnaire (LFPQ) were completed pre- and post-tDCS. Participants then consumed a fixed-energy meal, followed by the VAS, FCQ-S and LFPQ. No difference between pre- and post-tDCS scores were found across fullness (p = 0.275, BF10 = 0.040), prospective consumption (p = 0.127, BF10 = 0.063), desire to eat (p = 0.247, BF10 = 0.054) or FCQ-S measures (p = 0.918, BF10 = 0.040) when comparing active and sham protocols. Only explicit liking and wanting for high-fat sweet foods were significantly different between conditions, with increased scores following active tDCS. When controlling for baseline hunger, the significant differences were removed (p = 0.138 to 0.161, BF10 = 0.810 to 1.074). The present data does not support the eating behaviour trait dependency of tDCS in a specific cohort of female participants with mild-to-moderate binge eating scores, and results align with those from individuals with healthy trait scores. This suggests participants with sub-clinical binge eating behaviour do not respond to tDCS. Future work should further explore effects in clinical and sub-clinical populations displaying susceptibility to overconsumption and weight gain.

Influence of acute beetroot juice supplementation on cold-induced vasodilation and fingertip rewarming.

PURPOSE: Vasoactive ingredients in beetroot (BR) such as nitrate are known to induce vasodilation in temperate conditions. This study investigated the effect of BR ingestion on cold induced vasodilation (CIVD) and rewarming of finger skin temperature (Tfing) during and after hand immersion in cold water. METHODS: Twenty healthy males (mean ± SD; age 22.2 ± 0.7 years, height 172.6 ± 6.0 cm, body mass 61.3 ± 11.7 kg) repeated a hand cold water immersion test twice with prior BR or water beverage ingestion (randomised order). They rested for 2 h in thermoneutral conditions (27 °C, 40% relative humidity) after consuming the beverage, then immersed their non-dominant hand in 8 °C water for 30 min. They then rewarmed their hand in the ambient air for 20 min. Skin temperature at seven body sites, Tfing, finger skin blood flow (SkBFfing), and blood pressure were measured. RESULTS: During hand immersion parameters of CIVD (Tfing and SkBFfing) were not different between BR and water conditions although skin temperature gradient from proximal to distal body sites was significantly smaller with BR (P < 0.05). During rewarming, SkBFfing and cutaneous vascular conductance were significantly higher with BR than with water (P < 0.05). The rewarming speed in Tfing and SkBFfing was significantly faster with BR at 15- (BR 1.24 ± 0.22 vs water 1.11 ± 0.26 °C/min) and 20-min rewarming (P < 0.05). Additionally, individuals with slower rewarming speed with water demonstrated accelerated rewarming with BR supplementation. CONCLUSION: BR accelerated rewarming in Tfing and SkBFfing after local cold stimulus, whereas, CIVD response during hand cold immersion was not affected by BR ingestion.

Marathon Performance and Pacing in the Doha 2019 Women's IAAF World Championships: Extreme Heat, Suboptimal Pacing, and High Failure Rates.

PURPOSE: The Doha 2019 women's World Championship marathon took place in extreme hot (32 °C), humid conditions (74% relative humidity) culminating in unprecedented (41%) failure rates. We explored whether extreme heat or suboptimal pacing was responsible for diminished performance against a temperate "control" (London 2017: 19 °C, 59% relative humidity) and whether physical characteristics (eg, body surface area, estimated maximal oxygen uptake, habitual heat exposure) explained performance. METHOD: Five-kilometer-pace (km·h-1) data underwent repeated-measures analyses of hot (Doha, n = 40) versus temperate pacing and performance (London, n = 78) within and between marathon pacing (finisher quartiles normalized against personal best; n = 10 per group) and within hot marathon finishers versus nonfinishers (up to 10 km; normalized data). Possible predictors (multiple regression) of hot marathon pacing were explored. Tests to .05 alpha level, partial eta squared (ηp2) indicates effect size. RESULTS: Mean (SD) of Doha (14.82 [0.96] km·h-1) pace was slower (London: 15.74 [0.96] km·h-1; P = .00; ηp2=.500). In hot conditions, athletes finishing in positions 1 to 10 (group 1) started more conservatively (93.7% [2.1%] of personal best) than slower runners (groups 3 and 4; 96.6% [2.8%] of personal best; P < .05, ηp2=.303). Groups were not different at 15 km and then slowed immediately (groups 3 and 4) or after 20 km (group 2). Finishers and nonfinishers adopted similar pace up to 10 km (P > .05, ηp2 =.003). World ranking predicted (P = .00; r2 = .248) average pace in Doha. CONCLUSION: Extreme hot conditions reduced performance. Top 10 athletes adopted a conservative initial pace, whereas lower-placing athletes adopted a faster, aggressive start. Pacing alone does not explain high failure rates in nonfinishers. Athletes competing in the heat should initially pace conservatively to optimize performance.

Effective Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation Parameters for the Modulation of Eating Behavior: A Systematic Literature Review and Meta-Analysis.

OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to consider the effect of differing transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) parameters on eating-related measures and how issues with experimental design (e.g., inadequate blinding) or parameters variation may drive equivocal effects. METHODS: Literature searches were conducted across MEDLINE, PsycINFO, Scopus, and Science Direct. Studies using conventional sham-controlled tDCS to modify eating-related measures in adult human participants were included. A total of 1135 articles were identified and screened by two independent authors. Study quality was assessed using the Risk of Bias tool. Random-effects meta-analyses were performed, with subgroup analyses to determine differences between parameter sets. RESULTS: We identified 28 eligible studies; 7 showed low risk of bias, with the remaining studies showing bias arising from issues implementing or reporting blinding protocols. Large variation in applied parameters was found, including montage, current intensity and density, participant and researcher blinding, and the use of online or offline tasks. The application of differing parameters seemed to alter the effects of tDCS on eating-related measures, particularly for current density ( g = -0.25 to 0.31), and when comparing single-session ( g = -0.08 to 0.01) versus multisession protocols ( g = -0.34 to -0.29). Some parameters result in null effects. CONCLUSIONS: The absence of tDCS-mediated change in eating-related measures may be driven by variation in applied parameters. Consistent application of parameters that seem to be effective for modulating eating behavior is important for identifying the potential impact of tDCS. Using the findings of this review, we propose a series of parameters that researchers should apply in their work.

Quantifying the Peak Physical Match-Play Demands of Professional Soccer Substitutes Following Pitch-Entry: Assessing Contextual Influences.

Purpose: To quantify the peak post-pitch-entry physical responses of soccer substitutes while assessing contextual influences. Peak responses may be important performance indicators for substitutes introduced to provide a physical impact. Method: Thirty-three professional substitutes wore Microelectromechanical Systems during 44 matches (4 ± 3 observations·player-1). Post-pitch-entry relative peak values for total and high-speed (> 5.5 m·s-1) distances, average acceleration, and PlayerLoad™ were calculated using rolling averages over 60-s to 600-s. Linear mixed models assessed contextual influences (position, substitution timing, scoreline, and location). Results: Substitutes introduced during the final ~15 min of match-play covered less high-speed distance than first-half substitutes (~2.8-3.1 m·min-1) over 480-s to 600-s epochs, and less than 60:00-74:59 min substitutes (~1.7-1.8 m·min-1) during 540-s and 600-s epochs. Average acceleration during all except 180-s epochs was lower for 75:00+ min substitutes compared with first-half replacements (~0.27-0.43 m·s-2), and lower than 60:00-74:59 min substitutes during 60-s (~0.13 m·s-2). Substitutes introduced when their team was winning recorded greater distances over 120-s to 600-s (~6.2-7.7 m·min-1), and higher PlayerLoad™ values during 120-s, 180-s, 300-s, and 480-s epochs (~2.7-3.6 arbitrary units·min-1), compared with when scores were level at pitch-entry. Irrespective of substitution timing, substitute midfielders exceeded the total distance of substitute attackers (~5.9-16.2 m·min-1) for all except 360-s and 600-s epochs, and defenders (~13.3-26.7 m·min-1) during epochs < 300-s. Conclusions: This study provides benchmark data for practitioners tailoring training and recovery protocols, particularly "top-up" conditioning, to the competitive demands of soccer substitutes. Knowing how contextual factors influence substitutes' peak match-play responses may help managers/coaches assess the efficacy of substitution strategies.

Modulating eating behavior with transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS): A systematic literature review on the impact of eating behavior traits.

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is becoming an increasingly popular technique for altering eating behaviors. Recent research suggests a possible eating behavior trait-dependent effect of tDCS. However, studies recruit participant populations with heterogeneous trait characteristics, including "healthy" individuals who do not present with eating behavior traits suggesting susceptibility to overconsumption. The present review considers the effects of tDCS across eating-related measures and explores whether a trait-dependent effect is evident across the literature. A literature search identified 28 articles using sham-controlled tDCS to modify eating-related measures. Random effects meta-analyses were performed, with subgroup analyses to identify differences between "healthy" and trait groups. Trivial overall effects (g = -0.12 to 0.09) of active versus sham tDCS were found. Subgroup analyses showed a more consistent effect for trait groups, with small and moderate effect size (g = -1.03 to 0.60), suggesting tDCS is dependent on participants' eating behavior traits. Larger effect sizes were found for those displaying traits associated with study outcomes (e.g., heightened food cravings). "Healthy" individuals appear to be unresponsive to stimulation. Based on this meta data, future work should recruit those with eating behavior trait susceptibilities to overconsumption, focusing on those who present with traits associated with the outcome of interest.

The water incident database (WAID) 2012 to 2019: a systematic evaluation of the documenting of UK drownings.

BACKGROUND: Death by drowning is a leading cause of accidental death in the United Kingdom (UK) and worldwide. The World Health Organization (WHO) states that effective documentation of drowning is required to describe drowning frequency and to underpin effective drowning prevention intervention, thus improving the quality of data describing drowning frequency represents a key initiative. The water incident database (WAID) has been used to document UK fatal and non-fatal water-based incidents since 2009. WAID has not undergone a systematic evaluation of its data or data collection procedures to establish if the database meets the WHO requirements. The present study investigated the characteristics of UK fatal drowning incidents and audited current WAID data capture procedures. METHODS: Data for the fatal drowning cases recorded between 2012 and 2019 were reviewed. Descriptive data were generated 1) to describe fatal drownings in the UK's WAID in this period; 2) a sub-set of drownings were audited i) for completeness of data entry and, based on source documents, ii) for quality of data entry; 3) these processes were used to make recommendations for onward revisions to WAID. RESULTS: A total of 5051 fatalities were recorded between 2012 and 2019. Drowning was most frequent amongst males aged 35 to 60 years (n = 1346), whilst suspected accidents and suicides accounted for 44 and 35% of fatalities. Suicide by drowning was at a peak in the most recent year of data analysed (i.e., 2019; 279 cases) highlighting an urgent need for targeted intervention. Audit part 2i) indicated that 16% of all fields were incomplete, thus indicating potential redundancy, duplication, or the need for onward review. Audit part 2ii) indicated high levels of agreement (80 ± 12%) between audited cases and the 'true' WAID entries. CONCLUSIONS: This study confirms WAID as a rigorous, transparent and effective means of documenting UK drownings thereby meeting WHO requirements for data quality; yet future improvements are recommended. Such findings allow researchers and policy makers to use WAID to further investigate UK drowning with a view to improving public safety measures and drowning prevention interventions. Observations alongside several expert recommendations have informed a revised version of WAID.

Promoting physical activity through text messages: the impact of attitude and goal priority messages.

INTRODUCTION: Many young adults demonstrate insufficient rates of physical activity (PA) to yield health benefits. The study tested the effectiveness of a text messaging intervention targeting key psychological determinants and PA. METHODS: Participants received either attitude messages, goal priority messages, a combination of these, or generic PA information (control). After confirming that groups were matched at baseline, a 2 (attitude: yes vs. no) by 2 (goal priority: yes vs. no) by 2 (time: immediately post-intervention, four weeks post-intervention) randomized control trial tested main and interactive effects. RESULTS: Results showed participants that received attitude messages had significantly more positive attitudes, intentions and rates of PA. Mediational analyses showed the influence of attitude messages on PA to be fully mediated through the serial path via attitude and intention. There were no other main or interactive effects. CONCLUSION: The study provides support for using attitudinal messages delivered via text messaging to influence key psychological determinants and PA.

Body temperature and physical performance responses are not maintained at the time of pitch-entry when typical substitute-specific match-day practices are adopted before simulated soccer match-play.

OBJECTIVES: To profile performance and physiological responses to typical patterns of match-day activity for second-half soccer substitutes. DESIGN: Descriptive. METHODS: Following a warm-up, 13 male team sports players underwent ∼85min of rest, punctuated with five min rewarm-ups at ∼25, ∼50, and ∼70min, before ∼30min of simulated soccer match-play. Countermovement jump performance (jump height, peak power output), alongside 15m sprints, were assessed post-warm-up, and pre- and post-simulated match-play. Core temperature, heart rate, ratings of perceived exertion, and blood glucose and lactate concentrations were measured throughout. RESULTS: Warm-up-induced core temperature elevations (∼2.3%, +0.85°C; p<0.001) were maintained until after the first rewarm-up. Thereafter, core temperature was reduced from post-warm-up values until pre-simulated match-play (∼1.6%, -0.60°C; p<0.001), where values were similar to pre-warm-up (37.07±0.24°C, p=0.981). Simulated match-play increased core temperature progressively (p≤0.05) but values remained lower than post-warm-up (∼5min; p=0.002) until ∼10min into exercise. From post-warm-up to pre-simulated match-play, sprint times (∼3.9%, +0.10s, p=0.003), jump height (∼9.4%, -3.1cm; p=0.017), and peak power output (∼7.2%, -296W; p<0.001) worsened. Despite increased ratings of perceived exertion and elevated blood lactate concentrations (p≤0.05), sprint times were maintained throughout exercise, whereas peak power increased (∼7.8%, +294W; p=0.006) pre- to post-exercise. CONCLUSIONS: At the point of simulated pitch-entry, body temperature and physical performance responses were not maintained from warm-up cessation despite typical substitute-specific match-day practices being employed in thermoneutral conditions. Evidence of performance-limiting fatigue was absent during ∼30min of simulated match-play. These data question the efficacy of practices typically implemented by substitutes before pitch-entry.

The effect of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) on food craving, reward and appetite in a healthy population.

The ability to control hedonic appetite is associated with executive functioning, originating in the prefrontal cortex (PFC). These rewarding components of food can override homeostatic mechanisms, potentiating obesogenic behaviours. Indeed, those susceptible to overconsumption appear to have PFC hypo-activation. Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) over the dorsolateral PFC (DLPFC) has been shown to reduce food craving and consumption, potentially via attenuating this reward response. We examined the effects of stimulation on food reward and craving using a healthy-weight cohort. This study is amongst the first to explore the effects of tDCS on explicit and implicit components of reward for different food categories. Twenty-one healthy-weight participants (24 ± 7 years, 22.8 ± 2.3 kg m-2) completed two sessions involving double-blind, randomised and counterbalanced anodal or sham tDCS over the right DLPFC, at 2 mA for 20 min. Food craving (Food Craving Questionnaire-State), reward (Leeds Food Preference Questionnaire), and subjective appetite (100 mm visual analogue scales) were measured pre- and post-tDCS. Eating behaviour trait susceptibility was assessed using the Three Factor Eating Questionnaire-Short Form, Control of Eating Questionnaire, and Food Craving Questionnaire-Trait-reduced. Stimulation did not alter food craving, reward or appetite in healthy-weight participants who displayed low susceptibility to overconsumption, with low trait craving, good craving control, and low uncontrolled eating and emotional eating behaviour. Implicit and explicit reward were reliable measures of hedonic appetite, suggesting these are robust targets for future tDCS research. These findings suggest that applying tDCS over the DLPFC does not change food reward response in individuals not at risk for overconsumption, and future work should focus on those at risk of overconsumption who may be more responsive to the effects of tDCS on hedonic appetite.

Testing traditions in cycling: newspapers are effective thermal insulators during simulated downhill cycling.

BACKGROUND: Cycling downhill accelerates heat loss and requires lower work rates leading to cold discomfort. Historically, cyclists have behaviorally thermoregulated prior to cycling downhill by inserting newspapers into their jerseys. Yet, there is no experimental data to support such a method showing improvements in thermal perception and profile; we hypothesized it would. METHODS: Two cohorts (N.=8 each) of male participants completed two main trials each involving 30-minutes simulated uphill cycling (65% VO2peak 188 [41] W; no fan) followed by 15-minutes downhill cycling (35% VO2peak 41 [12] W) in front of an industrial fan (wind speed: 4.6 [0.1] m·s-1). In one trial participants inserted one (study 1) or two (study 2) tabloid newspapers into their jerseys (PAPER) prior to downhill cycling; the other was a control (NOPAPER). Whole body and torso thermal sensation (TS) and comfort (TC), aural temperature (Tau), skin temperature (Tskin), and newspaper mass change (∆) were measured. Data were compared using ANOVA and t-test to 0.05 alpha level. RESULTS: After uphill cycling thermal and perceptual profiles were similar. In study 1, only TC was transiently improved 1-minute after newspaper insertion. In study 2, Tskin rate of decline was lower in the PAPER condition (-0.11 [0.12] °C.min-1 cf -0.53 [0.16] °C.min-1; P=0.001) and Tchest remained higher (28.83 [3.17] °C cf 24.39 [3.22] °C). This improved TS but not TC. Newspaper mass increased indicating impaired sweat evaporation (∆mass: 5.7 [4.9] g; P=0.01). CONCLUSIONS: Thermal perception and profile during downhill cycling was improved by inserting two newspapers but not one newspaper into the jersey, supporting our hypothesis.

Profiling the Post-match Top-up Conditioning Practices of Professional Soccer Substitutes: An Analysis of Contextual Influences.

Hills, SP, Barrett, S, Busby, M, Kilduff, LP, Barwood, MJ, Radcliffe, JN, Cooke, CB, and Russell, M. Profiling the post-match top-up conditioning practices of professional soccer substitutes: An analysis of contextual influences. J Strength Cond Res 34(10): 2805-2814, 2020-Soccer practitioners implement "top-up" conditioning sessions to compensate for substitutes' limited match-play exposure. Although perceived to be valuable for reducing injury risk and augmenting positive physical adaptations, little research has considered the demands of post-match top-up training. To quantify post-match top-up responses, 31 professional soccer players wore 10 Hz microelectromechanical systems after 37 matches whereby they were selected in the match-day squad as substitutes (184 observations; 6 ± 5 observations·player). Linear mixed models and effect sizes (ES) assessed the influence of contextual factors on 23 physical performance variables. Top-ups lasted 17.13 ± 7.44 minutes, eliciting total and high-speed distances of 1.7 ± 6.2 km and 0.4 ± 1.7 km, respectively. Each contextual factor (i.e., position, substitution timing, match location, result, time of day, stage of the season, and fixture density) influenced at least 4 of the dependent variables profiled (p ≤ 0.05). Top-up duration; total, moderate-speed, and low-speed distance; and the number of repeated high-intensity efforts were greater for unused vs. used substitutes (ES: 0.38-0.73, small to moderate). Relative to away matches, home top-ups elicited heightened total, low-speed, and high-speed distances, alongside more moderate-speed accelerations and decelerations, and repeated high-intensity efforts (ES: 0.25-0.89, small to moderate). Although absolute and relative running distances were generally the highest when the fixture density was low, the greatest acceleration and deceleration demands were observed during the most congested fixture periods. Late-season top-ups typically elicited lower absolute physical responses than early and mid-season sessions. These data provide important information for practitioners when considering the aims and design of substitute top-up conditioning sessions, particularly with reference to contextual influences.

Modifying the pre-pitch entry practices of professional soccer substitutes may contribute towards improved movement-related performance indicators on match-day: A case study.

Modifying a soccer substitute's pre-pitch-entry activities may represent an opportunity to maximise physical performance and minimise injury-risk following match-introduction. Using a professional team that has previously participated in substitute profiling research, this follow-up case study investigated the effects of a modified match-day protocol that included substitutes; 1) performing a new pre-match warm-up alongside members of the starting team (as opposed to a separate substitute-only warm-up), 2) participating in a staff-led half-time rewarm-up (as opposed to player-led half-time activities), and 3) receiving ongoing education focusing on the efficacy of (re)warm-up activities. English Championship substitutes (n = 15) were monitored using Micro-electromechanical Systems during 13 matches incorporating the modified practices (35 observations). On an individual player basis, data were organised into bouts of warm-up activity (pre-pitch-entry) and five min epochs of match-play (post-pitch-entry). Linear mixed modelling assessed the influence of 'bout' and 'epoch', position, and scoreline. Substitutes performed 3±1 rewarm-up bouts∙player-1∙match-1 between kick-off and pitch-entry, which were shorter (-17.2 to -27.1 min) and elicited less distance (-696 to -1257 m) than the pre-match warm-up (p≤0.001). Compared with previous data, heightened absolute movement responses were observed during the pre-match and staff-led half-time (re)warm-ups, alongside greater relative distances covered during player-led activities performed between kick-off and pitch-entry. Whilst less distance (-10%) was covered during the second versus first five min period following match-introduction, values remained higher than previously reported. Between pitch-entry and the end of the match, the scoreline improved and worsened following 26% and 11% of substitutions, respectively; a favourable record compared with existing observations. Acknowledging the likely contribution from external factors, this case study reports heightened movement profiles and improved match scorelines when pre-pitch-entry practices were modified. Practitioners should note the potential influence of match-day activities on the physical responses of soccer substitutes and, if deemed necessary, consider adapting their pre-pitch-entry routines accordingly.

Practitioner perceptions regarding the practices of soccer substitutes.

Despite empirical observations suggesting that practitioners value the use of substitutions during soccer match-play, limited research has sought to substantiate such claims. This study used online surveys to assess the perceptions of practitioners within professional soccer about the use and practices of substitutes. Thirty-three practitioners completed one of two surveys (each requiring both open and closed questions to be answered), depending upon whether their primary role related mostly to tactical ('tactical practitioners'; n = 7) or physical ('physical practitioners'; n = 26) aspects of player/team management. Thematic content analysis of responses identified four higher-order themes: 'impact of substitutions', 'planning and communication', 'player preparation and recovery' and 'regulations'. Eighty-five percent of practitioners believed that substitutes are important in determining success during soccer match-play, with the primary justification being the perceived ability of such players to provide a physical and/or tactical impact. However, contextual factors such as the match situation, timing of introduction, and players undergoing adequate pre-pitch-entry preparation, may be important for realising such aims. Although many practitioners believed that there was a need for substitutes to engage in bespoke non-match-day preparations and recovery strategies that differ from starting players, logistical considerations, such as scarcity of resources, often limit their scope. Notwithstanding, 96% of respondents indicated that substitutes frequently perform extra conditioning sessions to account for deficits in high-speed running loads compared with players exposed to a longer period of match-play. Substitutes' pre-match warm-ups are typically led by team staff, however practitioners reported providing varying levels of input with regards to the practices adopted between kick-off and pitch-entry. Uncertainty exists as to the efficacy of current pre-pitch-entry practices, and 100% of practitioners highlighted 'preparatory strategies' as at least a 'moderately important' direction for future research. This study presents novel insights and highlights areas that are considered future research priorities amongst those working in the field.

A match-day analysis of the movement profiles of substitutes from a professional soccer club before and after pitch-entry.

Whilst the movement demands of players completing a whole soccer match have been well-documented, comparable information relating to substitutes is sparse. Therefore, this study profiled the match-day physical activities performed by soccer substitutes, focusing separately on the pre and post pitch-entry periods. Seventeen English Championship soccer players were monitored using 10 Hz Micromechanical Electrical Systems (MEMS) devices during 13 matches in which they participated as substitutes (35 observations). Twenty physical variables were examined and data were organised by bouts of warm-up activity (pre pitch-entry), and five min epochs of match-play (post pitch-entry). Linear mixed modelling assessed the influence of time (i.e., 'bout' and 'epoch'), playing position, and match scoreline. Substitutes performed 3±1 rewarm-up bouts∙player-1∙match-1. Compared to the initial warm-up, each rewarm-up was shorter (-19.7 to -22.9 min) and elicited less distance (-606 to -741 m), whilst relative total distances were higher (+26 to +69 m∙min-1). Relative total (+13.4 m∙min-1) and high-speed (+0.4 m∙min-1) distances covered during rewarm-ups increased (p <0.001) with proximity to pitch-entry. Players covered more (+3.2 m; p = 0.047) high-speed distance per rewarm-up when the assessed team was losing compared with when winning at the time of pitch-entry. For 10 out of 20 variables measured after pitch-entry, values reduced from 0-5 min thereafter, and substitutes covered greater (p ˂0.05) total (+67 to +93 m) and high-speed (+14 to +33 m) distances during the first five min of match-play versus all subsequent epochs. Midfielders covered more distance (+41 m) per five min epoch than both attackers (p ˂0.001) and defenders (p = 0.016). Acknowledging the limitations of a solely movement data approach and the potential influence of other match-specific factors, such findings provide novel insights into the match-day demands faced by substitute soccer players. Future research opportunities exist to better understand the match-day practices of this population.

Enhancement of Exercise Capacity in the Heat With Repeated Menthol-Spray Application.

Purpose: Exercise performance is impaired in the heat, and a contributing factor to this decrement is thermal discomfort. Menthol spraying of skin is one means of alleviating thermal discomfort but has yet to be shown to be ergogenic using single-spray applications. The authors examined whether repeated menthol spraying could relieve thermal discomfort, reduce perception of exertion, and improve exercise performance in hot (35°C), dry (22% relative humidity) conditions, hypothesizing that it would. Methods: A total of 8 trained cyclists completed 2 separate conditions of fixed-intensity cycling (50% maximal power output) for 45 min before a test to exhaustion (TTE; 70% maximal power output) with 100 mL of menthol spray (0.20% menthol) or control spray applied to the torso after 20 and 40 min. Perceptual (thermal sensation, thermal comfort, and rating of perceived exertion) performance (TTE duration), thermal variables (skin temperature, rectal temperature, and cardiac frequency), and sweating were measured. Data were compared using analysis of variance to .05 alpha level. Results: Menthol spray improved thermal sensation (cold sensation cf warm/hot after first spraying; P = .008) but only descriptively altered thermal comfort (comfortable cf uncomfortable; P = .173). Sweat production (994 [380] mL cf 1180 [380] mL; P = .020) and sweat rate (827 [327] mL·h-1 cf 941 [319] mL·h-1; P = .048) lowered. TTE performance improved (4.6 [1.74] cf 2.4 [1.55] min; P = .004). Menthol-spray effects diminished despite repeated applications, indicating increased contribution of visceral thermoreceptors to thermal perception. Conclusion: Repeated menthol spraying improves exercise capacity but alters thermoregulation, potentially conflicting behavioral and thermoregulatory drivers; care should be taken with its use. Carrying and deploying menthol spray would impose a logistical burden that needs consideration against performance benefit.

The effect of hot and cold drinks on thermoregulation, perception, and performance: the role of the gut in thermoreception.

PURPOSE: Hot compared to cold drinks alter sweating responses during very low intensity exercise in temperate conditions. The thermoregulatory, perceptual, and performance effects of hot compared to cold drinks in hot, dry conditions during high-intensity exercise have not been examined. METHOD: Ten participants [mean ± SD characteristics age 25 ± 5 years, height 1.81 ± 0.07 m, body mass 73.5 ± 10.6 kg, maximal power output (PMax) 350 ± 41 W] completed two conditions, where they drank four boluses (ingested at - 9, 15, 30, and 45 min, respectively) of 3.2 mL kg- 1 (~ 960 mL total) of either a COLD (5.3 °C) or a HOT drink (49.0 °C), which were contrasted to a no-drink CONTROL. They cycled for 60-min [55% PMax in hot (34.4 °C) dry (34% RH)] ambient conditions followed by a test to exhaustion (TTE; 80% PMax). The thermoregulatory, performance, and perceptual implications of drink temperature were measured. RESULTS: TTE was worse in the CONTROL (170 ± 132 s) than the COLD drink (371 ± 272 s; p = 0.021) and HOT drink conditions (367 ± 301 s; p = 0.038) which were not different (p = 0.965). Sweat responses [i.e., reflex changes in mean skin temperature (Tmsk) and galvanic skin conductance] indicated transient reductions in sweating response after COLD drink ingestion. The COLD drink improved thermal comfort beyond the transient changes in sweating. CONCLUSION: Only COLD drink ingestion changed thermoregulation, but improved perceptual response. Accordingly, we conclude a role for gut thermoreception in thermal perception during exercise in hot, dry conditions.

Profiling the Responses of Soccer Substitutes: A Review of Current Literature.

Depending upon competition regulations, the laws of soccer allow between three and an unlimited number of substitutions that can be made on either a permanent or rolling basis. Substitutes are typically introduced to minimise/offset the effects of fatigue, alter tactics, replace players deemed as underperforming or injured, and/or give playing time to youth players or to squad members returning from injury. While the match-day practices of substitutes include participation in the pre-match warm-up, and sporadic periods of rewarm-up activity, it is currently unclear as to whether these pre-entry preparations facilitate optimal match performance thereafter. Acknowledging the contextual factors that possibly influence substitutes' performance, this review summarises the presently available literature on soccer substitutes, and makes recommendations for future research. Literature searching and screening yielded 13 studies, which have typically focused on characterising: (1) the patterns, including timing, of substitutes' introduction; (2) indices of match-performance; and (3) the emotional experiences of soccer substitutes. The majority of substitutions occur after the first-half has ended (i.e. at half-time or during the second-half), with introduced players exceeding the second-half physical performances of those who started the match. Observations of progressive improvements in running performance as playing time increases, and findings that substitutes mostly experience negative emotions, highlight the potential inadequacies of pre-match preparations, and present future research opportunities. Additional work is therefore needed to confirm these findings and to determine the efficacy of current preparation strategies, thereby providing opportunities to assess then address substitutes' pre-pitch entry preparations, on-field performance and emotional responses.