Monkeypox: A re-emerging disease.

ABSTRACT: The virus known as monkeypox is the source of the zoonotic disease monkeypox, which was historically widespread in Central Africa and West Africa. The cases of monkeypox in humans are uncommon outside of West and Central Africa, but copious nonendemic nations outside of Africa have recently confirmed cases. People when interact with diseased animals, then, they may inadvertently contact monkeypox. There are two drugs in the market: brincidofovir and tecovirimat and both of these drugs are permitted for the cure of monkeypox by the US Food and Drug Administration. The present review summarizes the various parameters of monkeypox in context with transmission, signs and symptoms, histopathological and etiological changes, and possible treatment. Monkeypox is clinically similar to that of smallpox infection but epidemiologically, these two are different, the present study also signifies the main differences and similarities of monkeypox to that of other infectious diseases. As it is an emerging disease, it is important to know about the various factors related to monkeypox so as to control it on a very early stage of transmission.

Leucaena leucocephala succinate based polyelectrolyte complexes for colon delivery of synbiotic in management of inflammatory bowel disease.

Polyelectrolyte complexes (PECs) formed by the interaction between oppositely charged polymers have emerged as promising carriers for accomplishing colon-specific release. In this study, we have explored the potential of polyelectrolyte complexes between a succinate derivative of Leucaena leucocephala galactomannan and cationic guar gum for colon delivery of synbiotic. The PECs were prepared using a polyelectrolyte complexation method and characterized. The PECs exhibited excellent stability, with high encapsulation efficiency for both probiotics (95.53 %) and prebiotics (83.33 %). In vitro studies demonstrated enhanced survivability and proliferation of the encapsulated probiotics in the presence of prebiotics (93.29 %). The SEM images revealed a smooth and firm structure with reduced number of pores when both prebiotic and probiotic were encapsulated together. The treatment with synbiotic PECs in acetic acid induced IBD rats significantly relieves colitis symptoms as was evident from colon/body ratio, DAI score and histopathology studies. An increase in the protein and reduced glutathione levels and reduction in superoxide dismutase activity was observed in colitic rats that received synbiotic treatment as compared to colitic rats. Overall, this study highlights the potential of Leucaena leucocephala succinate-cationic guar gum PECs as a promising system for colon-specific synbiotic delivery, with implications for improved gut health and the treatment of various gastrointestinal disorders.

Polymeric films as a promising carrier for bioadhesive drug delivery: Development, characterization and optimization.

Bioadhesive films using tamarind seed polysaccharide were prepared for the treatment of candida vaginitis using nystatin as the model drug. Films were prepared by solvent casting method. A 32 factorial design was employed to study the effect of independent variables (polymer and plasticizer concentration) on a range of dependent variables namely mechanical, swelling, interfacial, and bioadhesive properties through response surface methodological approach, using Design Expert® software. Formulation composition that provided the most desired and optimized results was selected using desirability approach. Nystatin was solubilized using Tween 60 and was incorporated into the selected film. Drug solubilization and dispersion were confirmed by scanning electron microscopy and differential scanning calorimetry. The optimized film released 73.92 ± 2.54% of nystatin at the end of 8 h in simulated vaginal fluid and the release data showed best fit to Korsmeyer-Peppas model with R2 of 0.9990 and the release mechanism to be super case-II. The optimized film also showed appropriate anti candida activity through appearance of zone of inhibition during antifungal activity testing study.

Bioadhesive vaginal drug delivery of nystatin using a derivatized polymer: Development and characterization.

Increasing incidence of resistance to azole antifungals has highlighted the importance of the use of alternative therapeutic agents such as nystatin for the treatment of vulvovaginal candidiasis. The aim of the present study was to develop and characterize locally acting, film formulation for the treatment of candidiasis using a derivatized natural polymer. Derivatization of natural polymer was carried out in order to introduce anionic character to an otherwise neutral polymer, so as to enhance its interaction with vaginal mucous membrane along with inheriting the biocompatibility and nonirritant characteristics of its parent polymer. A carboxymethyl derivative of fenugreek gum (CMFG) was prepared, and characterized by DSC, FTIR and X-ray diffraction studies. The derivatized gum was found to possess bioadhesive and film forming properties. A 3(2) factorial design was employed to formulate vaginal films and a response surface methodological approach was used to study the effect of formulation variables on film properties. Films containing 5% w/v polymer and 2% v/v glycerol exhibited optimum properties in vitro. The optimized drug loaded formulation was able to release 100% drug over a period of 5h and followed Korsmeyer-Peppas kinetics. It was found to be non-irritant and nontoxic to vaginal mucosa and showed appropriate antifungal properties in vivo.

Development and validation of high performance liquid chromatographic method for analysis of clozapine.

In this study a rapid, simple and sensitive assay to quantify clozapine in human plasma by using reverse phase high performance liquid chromatographic method has been developed. Clozapine was extracted from human plasma using a mixture of chloroform: n-hexane 50:50 employing liquid-liquid extraction method. The calibration curve was found to be linear in the concentration range of 25-800 ng/ml. The inter day and intra day assay accuracy and precision fulfilled the criteria specified by USFDA, Guidance for industry: bioanalytical method validation. Clozapine was found to be stable in human plasma after 6 h incubation at room temperature, 50 days storage at -27°C and freeze thaw cycles, as well as after reconstitution with mobile phase after 24 h of storage in refrigerator. The validated method offers the advantage of using minimum injection volume (25µl) and plasma sample volume (300µl). The extraction method is simple and single step with no back extraction step, thus, making this method applicable to determination of pharmacokinetic profiles and parameters.

Innovations in bioadhesive vaginal drug delivery system.

INTRODUCTION: Vagina, due to its anatomical position and physiological characteristics is increasingly being explored as a site for drug delivery in recent years. This route coupled with bioadhesion phenomena has born fruitful results in delivering drugs both locally as well as systemically. AREAS COVERED: Bioadhesive vaginal drug delivery system has been used for the treatment of local diseases affecting the vagina like candidiasis, STD, vaginal dryness, and so on. Also, research has demonstrated that drugs can be successfully delivered to systemic circulation via vaginal mucosa for treatment of various diseases like migraine and osteoporosis. Besides, this vaginal route has also been used for uterine targeting of drugs. This review focuses on these recent innovations that have been patented in the area of bioadhesive vaginal drug delivery systems. The review also highlights certain physicochemical characteristics of bioadhesive polymers that affect drug delivery through this route. EXPERT OPINION: An in-depth study of this review will give an insight into the potential areas that can be explored while designing a bioadhesive vaginal drug delivery system. Also, the in vitro and in vivo experimental results discussed in the review will help stimulate research in development and optimization of newer formulations.

pH modulation: a mechanism to obtain pH-independent drug release.

IMPORTANCE OF THE FIELD: In formulation development, weakly acidic or basic drugs pose a major challenge as the solubility depends significantly on pH of the dissolution media. This gives rise to pH-dependent drug release, as the formulation is exposed to different pH ranges in the gastrointestinal tract. This indicates a need to carry out formulation optimization for such drugs while developing them into a dosage form. AREAS COVERED IN THIS REVIEW: For overcoming pH-dependent behavior of drugs, pH-modifying excipients (which alter the microenvironment pH inside the formulation) are most commonly used. A combination of enteric and sustained release polymers can be used for weakly basic drugs. Other strategies include conversion of crystalline drug to amorphous form, enhancement of partitioning of unionized fraction of drug from the formulation, and using a combination of pH modifier and enteric polymer, micellar solubilization and inclusion complexation. WHAT THE READER WILL GAIN: Readers will gain an insight into various formulation techniques for obtaining pH-independent drug release for weakly acidic and basic drugs. TAKE HOME MESSAGE: Readers will be able to evaluate the different formulation strategies in terms of their applicability and best use of the available strategies when designing their own research work for such drugs.