Indigenous knowledge of pastoralists on respiratory diseases of camels in northern Kenya.

The camel disease terminology of pastoralists in northern Kenya differentiates between two respiratory disease complexes of camels. Participatory epidemiology data were collected in 2011 in three camel keeping communities (Gabra, Garri, and Somali) and analysed to assess the validity of this differentiation. Further queries assessed recurrence of the disease in the same animal, most affected age group, relative frequency of occurrence, morbidity rates, mortality rates and response to antibiotic treatment. Based on matrix scoring the cardinal symptom nasal discharge was significantly correlated with Respiratory Disease Complex 1 (RDC1; Somali Hergeb, Gabra & Garri Furri) while cough was correlated with Respiratory Disease Complex 2 (RDC2; Somali Dhuguta, Gabra Qufa, Garri Dhugud). RDC1 appears to occur regularly every year and does not respond to antibiotic treatments while outbreaks of RDC2 are only observed at intervals of several years and treated cases do generally respond to antibiotics. While RDC1 is more severe in calves, RDC 2 is mostly associated with respiratory disease in adults. Elements of this differentiation appear to be in agreement with other authors who differentiate between camel influenza (PI3 virus) and bacterial camel pneumonia, respectively.

Laboratory evaluation of efficacy and persistence of a 1% w/w fipronil pour-on formulation (Topline®) against Glossina palpalis gambiensis, Diptera: Glossinidae.

One zebu bull of 365 kg live weight was treated along the back line with 36 mL of fipronil as a pour-on formulation. Long-lasting mortalities of Glossina palpalis gambiensis were recorded despite exposure to sunlight and regular rinsing with 50 L of water during the following 5 months. Significantly higher mortalities were still observed even 140, 170 and 190 days after treatment following their triple releases or triple feeding of caged tsetse on the treated bull. Mortalities of 70, 80 and 44%, respectively, were recorded after 15 days of observation. This contrasted with the mortalities of control flies that were released in the presence of the untreated bull or fed in cages on the animal, amounting to 20 and twice 10% after 170 and 190 days. The feeding successes of the released or caged flies were higher than 95% and did not differ between control and experimental groups, indicating no repulsive or irritant effects of fipronil. The findings of this study are discussed, particularly in view of the potential of fipronil as an effective means for tsetse control.

Loads and antimicrobial resistance of Campylobacter spp. on fresh chicken meat in Nueva Ecija, Philippines.

This study was performed to determine the prevalence and to semiquantify Campylobacter spp. on chicken meat samples at 4 selected local wet markets in Nueva Ecija, Philippines, and to determine the antimicrobial resistance patterns of the Campylobacter isolates. Out of 120 chicken meat samples, 57 (47.5%) were Campylobacter spp. positive. The majority of isolated Campylobacter strains were identified as Campylobacter coli (54.4%) and 45.6% as Campylobacter jejuni. Most of these positive samples (52.6%) showed a very high quantitative Campylobacter contamination (most probable number > 2,400/g, lower confidence limit 580/g). For antimicrobial resistance testing, 44 C. coli/jejuni isolates were tested using the agar disk diffusion method. Out of these, 77.3% were resistant to ampicillin, followed by ciprofloxacin (70.4%), tetracycline (54.6%), erythromycin (20.2%), and gentamicin (11.4%). Of the isolates, 36.4% (n = 16) were resistant to 1 antimicrobial agent, 34.1% (n = 15) were resistance to 3 antimicrobial agents, 13.6% (n = 6) to 2 antimicrobial agents, 9.1% (n = 4) to 4 antimicrobial agents, and 6.8% (n = 3) to all 5 antimicrobial agents tested. Our data demonstrate a high contamination of fresh chicken meat with Campylobacter spp. at retail in the Philippines. The detected high Campylobacter prevalences and quantitative loads on chicken meat at retail in the Philippines highlight the need to implement efficient intervention measures along the food chain and to encourage sanitary handling of poultry meat.

A cross-sectional study of Salmonella in pre-slaughter pigs in a production compartment of northern Thailand.

A cross-sectional study was conducted to determine the prevalence of Salmonella and to associate management factors in fattening pigs in a production compartment of northern Thailand. A total of 194 fecal samples and 166 environmental samples were collected from 22 fattening pig herds for isolation and identification of Salmonella. An additional 427 serum samples were collected from the same herds to determine Salmonella antibodies using ELISA. A questionnaire was used to collect management factors likely to be associated with Salmonella identification. Prevalence of Salmonella in each sample and its confidence interval was adjusted for clustering by herds using linearization technique. A generalized estimating equation was used to determine the odds ratio and significance level for each management factor in a logistic regression model. Salmonella was found in all 22 study pig herds with a fecal sample prevalence of 63% (95%CI: 56-69%) and a serum sample prevalence of 72%. However, isolation results were not significantly different from ELISA results. The most isolated serotype was Salmonella Rissen (49%) followed by Salmonella Typhimurium (19%), Salmonella Stanley (12%) and Salmonella Weltevreden (4%) being significantly different in the different specimens collected (p=.024). The final logistic regression model with isolation results as outcome showed that medium herd size (OR=2.32, p=0.003), quality certification according to the Department of Livestock Development standard (OR=1.88, p=0.000), use of effective microorganisms (OR=1.51, p=0.022), slurry waste management (OR=2.17, p=0.000) and less number of pigs per pen (OR=1.12, p=0.000) were significantly associated with positive Salmonella isolation; with positive ELISA results, however, only the use of effective microorganisms was significantly associated (OR=2.63, p=0.011).

Seroprevalence of Trichinella in slaughter pigs in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal.

The aim of the present study was to determine the Trichinella seroprevalence in slaughter pigs in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal. Serum samples were obtained from 400 pigs at 4 major slaughterhouses and tested for Trichinella antibodies by ELISA using larval excretory-secretory (E/S) antigen. Four were positive and one was equivocal, giving a Trichinella seroprevalence of 1% (95% CI: 0.27 - 2.54). On titration, all positive and equivocal samples had titers greater than 1:80. Upon re-examination the equivocal sample failed to give a positive ELISA result. The pigs were from four major areas of Nepal, Kathmandu Valley, eastern Nepal, Terai and adjoining areas of the valley. Positive results were found from only Kathmandu Valley and adjoining areas. There was no significant difference in the prevalence between areas (p = 0.43). All four positive samples were from indoor managed pigs. The Trichinella seroprevalence determined in this study deserves a direct demonstration of the parasites for proof of the presence of Trichinella in Nepal and to discover the species and infection sources.

Reduced milk production in udder quarters with subclinical mastitis and associated economic losses in crossbred dairy cows in Ethiopia.

The objective of the study was to estimate the losses associated with subclinical mastitis (SCM) in crossbred dairy cows in the Central Highlands of Ethiopia. A split udder investigation was performed with 30 cows to determine production losses associated with SCM. Each quarter of the study cows was examined using the California Mastitis Test (CMT) and quarter milk production was measured over a period of 8 days. Production losses were determined for different CMT scores by comparing production of quarters with CMT score 0 to quarters with CMT scores trace, 1, 2 and 3, respectively. Using data from a recently published study, economic losses were determined for different farm sizes and production subsystems by multiplying the prevalence of the respective CMT scores with the production losses associated with these CMT scores. Mean quarter milk production was 0.82 +/- 0.40 kg per milking in the split udder trial. Milk production was reduced by 1.2%, 6.3%, and 33% in quarters with CMT scores 1+, 2+, and 3+, respectively. Using data from the published study, a quarter with SCM lost an average of 17.2% of its milk production. Production losses associated with SCM were estimated at 5.6% for the Addis Ababa Milk Shed. Stratified losses were highest (9.3%) in urban dairy farms (UDF) and small-scale farms (6.3%). The estimates of the financial losses ranged from US dollars 29.1 in dairy herds in secondary towns (DHIST) to US dollars 66.6 in UDF. A total loss of US dollars 38 was estimated for each cow per lactation. Reducing mastitis in UDF (highest prevalence) to the level of DHIST (lowest prevalence) could reduce the loss by US dollars 35. As this does not include costs associated with treatment or culling of diseased cows, this figure probably underestimates the possible benefits of control measures.

Risk factors for dairy cow mastitis in the central highlands of Ethiopia.

This study, with the objective of assessing the effect of risk factors on dairy cow mastitis in the central highlands of Ethiopia, was undertaken between February and September 2001 in the urban and peri-urban areas of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. A prevalence study and questionnaire survey were carried out simultaneously. Clinical examination of lactating udders and California mastitis test (CMT) determined clinical and subclinical mastitis, respectively. Risk factors for subclinical and clinical mastitis were identified from data on animals and farm management by chi-square analysis and subsequent logistic regression. Cows aged at least 8 years, with poor body condition, with at least 8 parities and in at least the eighth month of lactation had a significantly higher risk for subclinical mastitis (p < 0.05). The risk was reduced for cows up to their third parity in good body condition and for cows receiving dry cow therapy. Cows aged at least 4 years, or with at least 8 parities, cows in at least the fourth month of lactation, cows with poor body condition, leaking milk or previous udder infections had a significantly higher risk of clinical mastitis (p <0.05). The risk was reduced by the use of separate towels for udder cleaning and by drying off at the end of lactation. Most of the risk factors were in agreement with previous reports. However, stage of lactation and drying-off style were in contrast to others. Further research is needed to identify the interrelationship between production level, specific pathogens and management risk factors.

The inception and development of basic animal health systems: examples of German development co-operation.

About thirty years ago the financial, logistic and manpower resources of veterinary and animal production services in the developing world were stretched to the limit. Epizootic disease control was their main and often only field activity, which left livestock owners to manage their daily production and health problems alone. To meet their requirements, Veterinary Services in these countries came under increasing public and political pressure to modify and adjust their approaches. This gave rise to a series of workshops in Africa (e.g. Bujumbura in Burundi and Blantyre in Malawi) and South-East Asia (e.g. Singapore, and Khon Kaen in Thailand), most of which were organised and facilitated by the German Agency for Technical Co-operation (GTZ) in close collaboration with French and British development co-operation agencies and universities. These workshops stimulated discussion with the key stakeholders and, thus, were most beneficial in supporting the process of developing alternative approaches. This paper reports in particular on the outcomes of the regional workshops held in Bujumbura, Burundi, in 1984, Blantyre, Malawi, in 1985, Bangui, Central African Republic, in 1988, Khon Kaen, Thailand, in 1989, Schmitten, Germany, in 1991, and Mzuzu, Malawi, in 1996 and 2000. For more than two decades, concepts of community-based livestock services in general, and primary animal health activities (PAHAs) in particular, have been developed and established in various developing countries. Over the years the PAHA concept has proved to be effective and has shown that livestock-keeping communities clearly benefit from such programmes. In presenting key features from some prominent and successful project examples (GTZ-supported projects in Thailand, Malawi and Somalia) it can be demonstrated that such approaches are not static but rather dynamic, requiring open minded innovative partners on both sides. Over the last few years, the delivery of PAHA has become the domain of non-governmental organisations. The propagation and application of this approach in various developing countries with limited veterinary infrastructure is supporting a privatisation process within the existing governmental veterinary structures, thus, allowing veterinary departments more freedom to focus on their core functions.

Control of Taenia saginata by post-mortem examination of carcasses.

BACKGROUND: A study to curb transmission cycle of a zoonotic Taenia cestodiasis between humans and cattle is presented. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the reliability of meat inspection procedure in detecting carcasses of cattle with T. saginata cysticercosis. METHODS: A total of 55 cattle divided into two groups of artificially (n=30) and naturally (n= 25) infested animals were utilized. Total dissection method was used as a gold standard of validity. RESULTS: Meat inspection insensitively revealed cysticerci in 12 carcasses in each group compared with 24 and 23 carcasses revealed by total dissection in natural and artificial infestations, respectively. Sites of oncosphere invasion showed great variations with the two groups of cattle. In the predilection sites, most cysticerci were found in the heart, Triceps brachii, tongue and head muscles in that order. However, non-predilection sites (neck and back, hind limbs, chest, pelvic and lumbar regions, lungs and liver) considerably harboured high numbers of cysticerci. Observations indicated that except for the dead, degenerate or calcified cysticerci a careless meat inspector will most likely miss out quite a number of viable cysticerci, which blend the pinkish-red colour of the meat and be passed on for human consumption, becoming the source of bovine cysticercosis. CONCLUSIONS: The results confirmed that in spite of the time and efforts taken by meat inspectors looking for cysticerci at specified predilection sites of carcasses, this method is insensitive and inaccurate. To effectively improve meat inspection procedures, there is need to increase the area and number of predilection sites observed during inspection and vary them according to the nature of the animals, their husbandry history and the target human population for consumption. In addition, other control approaches such as vaccination, chemotherapy and immunodiagnosis should be developed and implemented to complement meat inspection procedures.

Epidemiological assessment of rinderpest surveillance and control in Uganda between 1990 and 1998.

Based on passive and active data, we report on an epidemiological assessment of surveillance and control of rinderpest (RP) in Uganda between 1990 and 1998. Active data were collected by administration of questionnaires to animal health personnel and their auxiliaries and to stockowners in six selected districts of eastern and northeastern Uganda. Passive data were extracted from vaccination and seromonitoring reports, and from field and laboratory reports. RP events were classified as "confirmed outbreaks", "suspected outbreaks" and "rumours". The classification of 56% of the RP events as "suspected outbreaks" indicates the difficulty in investigating disease outbreaks in Uganda. Although vaccination coverage and seroprevalence were <85% (the recommended target), they nevertheless corresponded well-reflecting effective vaccination. However, because of the low seroprevalence, a sizable population of cattle in Uganda remained at risk of RP. The agreement between the local and national disease reporting systems was low-to-moderate (kappa=0.39); this indicates inefficiency in disease reporting. Risk factors for RP outbreaks were cattle raids and communal grazing. Based on overlaid thematic maps of seroprevalence, vaccination coverage and RP events, close spatial and temporal associations were observed between cattle raids, transhumance and outbreaks and rumours. The high-risk areas were in the eastern and northeastern parts of the country. The results of this study support a phase approach of following the OIE pathway.