Distribution and extent of suitable habitats of Ruspoli's Turaco (Tauraco ruspolii) and White-cheeked Turaco (Tauraco leucotis) under a changing climate in Ethiopia.

BACKGROUND: Understanding the distribution pattern of species and their suitable habitat is key to focus conservation efforts. Climate change has had notable impact on the distribution and extent of suitable habitats, and the long-term survival of various species. We aim to determine the distribution and extent of suitable habitats for Tauraco ruspolii and T. leucotis in Ethiopia and predict their range in the 2050s and 2070s using MaxEnt algorithm. We used 25 and 29 rarified occurrence points for T. ruspolii and T. leucotis, respectively, and 13 environmental variables. Three regularization multipliers and two cut-off thresholds were used to map the potential suitable habitats for each species under current and future climates. Maps were assembled from these techniques to produce final composite tertiary maps and investigated the habitat suitability overlap between the two species using the UNION tool in the geographical information system. RESULT: All model run performances were highly accurate for both species. Precipitation of the driest month and vegetation cover are the most influential variables for the habitat suitability of T. ruspolii. The habitat suitability of T. leucotis is also mainly influenced by mean temperature of the driest quarter and vegetation cover. Under the current climate, the suitable habitat predicted for T. ruspolii covered about 24,639.19 km2, but its range size change shows a gain and increase by 156.00% and 142.68% in 2050 and 2070, respectively. The T. leucotis's current suitable habitat ranges about 204,397.62 km², but this is reduced by 40.84% and 68.67% in 2050 and 2070, respectively. Our modeling also showed that there was suitable habitat overlap between them at the margin of their respective habitat types in time series. CONCLUSION: We concluded that there is a direct or indirect impact of climate change on the suitable habitat range expansion for T. ruspolii and contraction for T. leucotis as well as overlapping of these turaco species in different regions of Ethiopia. Therefore, understanding the distribution of current and future suitable habitats of the two turaco species can provide valuable information to implement conservation practices for the species and the regions as well.

Composition and seasonality of rodent diet in Chimit Kola, Blue Nile Gorge, Ethiopia.

A study on the composition and seasonality of rodent diet was carried out during 2020-2022 years in Chimit Kola to determine the type, relative proportion and seasonality of food items consumed. A total of 166 stomach contents that belong to six rodent species (Mastomys awashensis, Acomys louisae, Arvicanthis raffertyi, Lophuromys simensis, Gerbilliscus sp. and Lemniscomys macculus) were investigated. Parametric and non-parametric analyses of variance were used to test the difference. Leaves and stems, seeds, invertebrates, fruits and unidentified food matters were the food items identified in the stomach contents of rodents. There was a significant variation in food items consumed among rodent species. Arvicanthis raffertyi and L. macculus consumed more leaves and stems whereas L. simensis, A. louisae and Gerbilliscus sp. mostly fed on invertebrates. Mastomys awashensis consumed relatively more seeds (30%) than any other rodent species (ranging from 14 to 28%). Acomys louisae, L. simensis and Gerbilliscus sp. consumed more leaves and stems during the dry season and invertebrates during the wet season. Similarly, A. raffertyi consumed more leaves and stems during the wet season and seeds during the dry season. However, the diet of M. awashensis and L. macculus and some food items (fruits and unidentified food matters) of most rodent species were similar between seasons. Mastomys awashensis significantly consumed a higher proportion of seeds in the fallowland (44%) than in other habitats (ranging from 19 to 31%). Similarly, A. louisae and L. macculus consumed a significantly higher proportion of invertebrates in bushland (53%) and riverine forests (48%) than in other habitats (ranging from 16 to 47%), respectively. The present finding concluded that these rodent species are diet generalists, feeding on a variety of available resources depending on seasons and habitats. The study documents the diet composition of these rodent species for the first time. Thus, the management and conservation of these rodents should be in consideration of their feeding habits and factors that influence their diets.

Modeling habitat suitability for the lesser-known populations of endangered mountain nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni) in the Arsi and Ahmar Mountains, Ethiopia.

Habitat suitability models have become a valuable tool for wildlife conservation and management, and are frequently used to better understand the range and habitat requirements of rare and endangered species. In this study, we employed two habitat suitability modeling techniques, namely Boosted Regression Tree (BRT) and Maximum Entropy (Maxent) models, to identify potential suitable habitats for the endangered mountain nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni) and environmental factors affecting its distribution in the Arsi and Ahmar Mountains of Ethiopia. Presence points, used to develop our habitat suitability models, were recorded from fecal pellet counts (n = 130) encountered along 196 randomly established transects in 2015 and 2016. Predictor variables used in our models included major landcover types, Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), greenness and wetness tasseled cap vegetation indices, elevation, and slope. Area Under the Curve model evaluations for BRT and Maxent were 0.96 and 0.95, respectively, demonstrating high performance. Both models were then ensembled into a single binary output highlighting an area of agreement. Our results suggest that 1864 km2 (9.1%) of the 20,567 km2 study area is suitable habitat for the mountain nyala with land cover types, elevation, NDVI, and slope of the terrain being the most important variables for both models. Our results highlight the extent to which habitat loss and fragmentation have disconnected mountain nyala subpopulations. Our models demonstrate the importance of further protecting suitable habitats for mountain nyala to ensure the species' conservation.

Diurnal activity time budget of Grevy's zebra (Equus grevyi, Oustalet 1882) in a protected savannah area.

Understanding natural history such as diurnal activity of wildlife species is important for their conservation intervention. The aim of the current study was to examine Grevy's zebra diurnal activity time budget in Hallaydeghe Asebot Proposed National Park (HAPNP) considering both wet and dry seasons. Scan sampling method was used. Activities of the species were recorded based on age and sex. Species were observed for 15 min (10 min activities recording followed 5 min rest). Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used to analysis data. Grazing (31.26%) was the highest followed by resting (30.24%) during the wet season and grazing (37.13%) was the highest followed by moving (27.25%) during dry season. The peak grazing time of species was morning 6:00-9:00 a.m. and late afternoon 16:00-18:00 p.m. while resting was observed during midday. The time the species spent over grazing (df = 1, F = 27.15, p = 0.000132), Grooming (df = 1, F = 24.082, p = 0.000231), mating (df = 1, F = 24.850, p = 0.0002) and moving (df = 1, F = 5.550, p = 0.0336) activity during both seasons were significantly different. There is statistical difference for grazing (df = 2, F = 9.336, p = 0.002653), mating (df = 2, F = 6.216, p = 0.0117), moving (df = 2, F = 5.604, p = 0.0163) and other (df = 2, F = 5.006, p = 0.0229) activities based on sex of species. The current study examined only diurnal activity time budget of the species. As a result, future research shall be conducted by taking into account the impact of different factors (temperature and livestock) that can influence the activity time budget of Grevy's zebra in HAPNP. Lastly, we recommend thorough species management plan in HAPNP for sustainable conservation of Grevy's zebra.

Djaffa Mountains guereza (Colobus guereza gallarum) abundance in forests of the Ahmar Mountains, Ethiopia.

The size and density of a population are essential parameters in primate ecology and conservation. Such information, however, is still scarce for many forest primate species. The Djaffa Mountains guereza (Colobus guereza gallarum) is an endemic Ethiopian taxon for which data about its distribution and population size are missing. Therefore, we aimed to estimate the abundance and population size of the Djaffa Mountains guereza in four forests in the Ahmar Mountains southeast of the Ethiopian Rift Valley. We conducted line-transect surveys in the forests. Within an area of 183 km2, we sampled 19 transects covering a distance of 75.9 km. We encountered 73 guereza clusters which most likely represent social groups. Since the detection distances and cluster sizes did not differ among the four forests, we applied a conventional distance sampling (CDS) model and estimated a population density of 20.6 clusters per square kilometer, i.e., 109.6 individuals per square kilometer or 20 061 individuals within the complete study area. This abundance is relatively high compared to other C. guereza taxa. However, given that the habitat and population of C. g. gallarum are already highly fragmented, further monitoring of the population and exploration of the possibilities of reconnecting its habitat should be priorities for the conservation of this taxon.

Potential changes in the extent of suitable habitats for geladas (Theropithecus gelada) in the Anthropocene.

BACKGROUND: Climate change coupled with other anthropogenic pressures may affect the extent of suitable habitat for species and thus their distributions. This is particularly true for species occupying high-altitude habitats such as the gelada (Theropithecus gelada) of the Ethiopian highlands. To explore the impact of climate change on species distributions, Species Distribution Modelling (SDM) has been extensively used. Here we model the current and future extent of sutibale habitat for geladas. Our modelling was based on 285 presence locations of geladas, covering their complete current distribution. We used different techniques to generate pseudoabsence datasets, MaxEnt model complexities, and cut-off thresholds to map the potential distribution of gelada under current and future climates (2050 and 2070). We assembled maps from these techniques to produce a final composite map. We also evaluated the change in the topographic features of gelada over the past 200 years by comparing the topography in current and historical settings. RESULTS: All model runs had high performances, AUC = 0.87-0.96. Under the current climate, the suitable habitat predicted with high certainty was 90,891 km2, but it decreased remarkably under future climates, -36% by 2050 and - 52% by 2070. However, since the habitats of geladas already extend to mountaintop grasslands, no remarkable range shifts across elevation gradients were predicted under future climates. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings indicated that climate change most likely results in a loss of suitable habitat for geladas, particularly south of the Rift Valley. Currently geladas are confined to higher altitudes and steep slopes compared to historical sightings, probably qualifying geladas as refugee species. The difference in topography is potentially associated with anthropogenic pressures that drove niche truncation to higher altitudes, undermining the climatic and topographic niche our models predicted. We recommend protecting the current habitats of geladas even when they are forecasted to become climatically unsuitable in the future, in particular for the population south of the Rift Valley.

Local's attitude towards African elephant conservation in and around Chebra Churchura National Park, Ethiopia.

Economic growth and development in developing countries often involves land-use changes which fragment natural areas, bring humans and wildlife into closer proximity and escalating human- wildlife conflicts. Human-wildlife conflicts impose huge costs on local people and their livelihoods. Balancing developmental activities with the conservation of mega fauna such as the African and Asian elephants (Loxodonta Africana, Elephas maximus; respectively) remains problematic. Understanding the reasoning upon which perceived risks and level of human- elephant conflict laid is critical to address societal or cultural beliefs in order to develop effective mitigation strategies. The perceived risks and level of conflict have to be properly addressed for effective planning and implementation of appropriate mitigation strategies. We studied human- elephant interactions in Chebra Churchura National Park Ethiopia (CCNP) from September 8 to October 28, 2022 and collected baseline data on human perceptions of conflicts in an area where elephant populations are increasing. To complete our study, we surveyed 800 household from 20 villages adjacent to the CCNP. The purpose of this investigation was to identify the relevance of the existing human-elephant conflict (HEC) with the attitude of local communities towards elephant conservation, the park management and perceived effective mitigation techniques. The local communities trust in the implementation of different traditional mitigation techniques is generally weak. The households interviewed were less positive towards the effectiveness of most of the traditional techniques in chasing elephants away from their farm lands. They believed that elephants had already adapted and do not respond to most of these techniques. Against the above perception in exception of their usual absence and late arrival, perception of local communities about shooting warning gun by park scouts is among the most accepted effective methods in chasing elephants from their farm lands. The majority of respondents believe that separation of elephants and humans by constricting barriers is the best solution to the problem. The idea of constructing barriers such as electric fence; ditch or concrete wall and blocking corridors between the Park boundary and the villages have become the most popular idea of local communities followed by relocating people to other safer places, as the best protection method against the elephant attack irrespective of the associated initial and maintenance costs.

Impact of climate change on the distribution and predicted habitat suitability of two fruit bats (Rousettus aegyptiacus and Epomophorus labiatus) in Ethiopia: Implications for conservation.

Fruit bats serve as crucial bioindicators, seed dispersers, pollinators, and contributors to food security within ecosystems. However, their population and distribution were threatened by climate change and anthropogenic pressures. Understanding the impacts of these pressures through mapping distribution and habitat suitability is crucial for identifying high-priority areas and implementing effective conservation and management plans. We predicted the distribution and extent of habitat suitability for Rousettus aegyptiacus and Epomophorus labiatus under climate change scenarios using average predictions from four different algorithms to produce an ensemble model. Seasonal precipitation, population index, land-use land cover, vegetation, and the mean temperature of the driest quarter majorly contributed to the predicted habitat suitability for both species. The current predicted sizes of suitable habitats for R. aegyptiacus and E. labiatus were varied, on average 60,271.4 and 85,176.1 km2, respectively. The change in species range size for R. aegyptiacus showed gains in suitable areas of 24.4% and 22.8% in 2050 and 2070, respectively. However, for E. labiatus, suitable areas decreased by 0.95% and 2% in 2050 and 2070, respectively. The range size change of suitable areas between 2050 and 2070 for R. aegyptiacus and E. labiatus shows losses of 1.5% and 1.2%, respectively. The predicted maps indicate that the midlands and highlands of southern and eastern Ethiopia harbor highly suitable areas for both species. In contrast, the areas in the northern and central highlands are fragmented. The current model findings show that climate change and anthropogenic pressures have notable impacts on the geographic ranges of two species. Moreover, the predicted suitable habitats for both species are found both within and outside of their historical ranges, which has important implications for conservation efforts. Our ensemble predictions are vital for identifying high-priority areas for fruit bat species conservation efforts and management to mitigate climate change and anthropogenic pressures.

Feeding ecology of a highland population of hamadryas baboons (Papio hamadryas) at Borena-Sayint National Park, northern Ethiopia.

Studying the diet and feeding behavior of primates is essential to understanding their ecology and designing effective conservation plans. Despite decades of study on the hamadryas baboon (Papio hamadryas) in lowland habitats, little is known about the feeding ecology of this species in highland ecosystems. To address this empirical gap, we tracked temporal changes in vegetation abundance and their relation to the dietary choices of hamadryas baboons in highland habitat at Borena-Sayint National Park (BSNP) in northern Ethiopia. We performed behavioral scan sampling on a focal study band of 21-37 hamadryas baboons over a 12-month period. We found that mature and young leaves were the most abundant plant parts throughout the year, while fruits and flowers were the least abundant, with significant seasonal variation that followed the bimodal pattern of rainfall characteristic of the Ethiopian highlands ecosystem. The annual diet of hamadryas baboons at BSNP consisted mostly of fruits (32.0%) and graminoid blades (21.2%), and included 52 food species across 22 families of plants and three families of animals. Food raided from nearby farms accounted for 8.8% of their diet. The availability of fruits and flowers was positively correlated with their consumption, suggesting that these are preferred foods, whereas graminoid blades, and other leaves, appeared to be less preferred foods. The feeding ecology of hamadryas baboons at BSNP differs considerably from that of lowland populations. The well-studied lowland hamadryas baboons in Awash National Park obtain much of their diet from Acacia species and palm fruit, whereas those at BSNP, where Acacia trees are rare and palms are absent, relied on Olinia rochetiana and Rosa abyssinica for a combined 27% of their annual diet. The reliance of hamadryas baboons at BSNP on cultivated crops for nearly one-tenth of their diet leads to conflict with humans and warrants more detailed study so that this issue can be addressed in conservation plans for the area.

Population size and habitat preference of the Omo River guereza (Colobus guereza guereza) in a multi-habitat matrix in the central highlands of Ethiopia.

Given the current rate of habitat degradation and loss in the tropics, data on primate population densities and habitat use are indispensable for assessing conservation status and designing feasible management plans for primates. The Omo River guereza (Colobus guereza guereza) is a subspecies of the eastern black-and-white colobus monkey endemic to the western Rift Valley forests of Ethiopia. Their restricted distribution along with habitat loss and hunting within their range render them vulnerable to local extirpation and extinction. Furthermore, there are no published data available on the population status and habitat use patterns of the Omo River guereza. We therefore aimed to assess the population size of Omo River guerezas in different habitats (Erica-Juniperus mixed forest, mixed plantation forest, undisturbed natural forest, disturbed natural forest) using transect surveys at Wof-Washa Natural State Forest (WWNSF) in central Ethiopia. Our surveys covered a cumulative distance of 88.5 km in four different habitats, during which we recorded a total of 140 Omo River guereza groups. The average group density was 14.3 groups/km2, average individual density was 94.4 individuals/km2, and we estimated the total population size within WWNSF to be 2549 individuals. The sex ratio of the population was split evenly between males and females, though the age classes skewed strongly towards adults. Of the habitats surveyed, the highest group encounter rate (1.83 groups/km) occurred in the disturbed natural forest. However, the highest individual density (110.1 individuals/km2) was recorded in undisturbed natural forest. Still, sizable densities (group and individual) were recorded in three of the disturbed habitats (disturbed natural forest, mixed plantation forest, and to a lesser extent Erica-Juniperus mixed forest). Our study offers the first baseline information with which to compare future population density estimates and habitat use in the range of Omo River guerezas.

Feeding ecology and diet of the southern geladas (Theropithecus gelada obscurus) in human-modified landscape, Wollo, Ethiopia.

Studying the dietary flexibility of primates that live in human-modified environments is crucial for understanding their ecological adaptations as well as developing management and conservation plans. Southern gelada (Theropithecus gelada obscurus) is an endemic little-known subspecies of gelada that inhabits human-modified landscapes in the northern central highlands of Ethiopia. During an 18-month period, we conducted this intensive study in an unprotected area of a human-modified landscape at Kosheme in Wollo to investigate the feeding ecology of southern geladas and their dietary responses to seasonal variations. We quantified the monthly and seasonal diet data from a band of southern geladas using instantaneous scan sampling method at 15-min intervals, and green grass phenology and availability using visual inspection from the randomly selected permanent plots. The overall average diet of southern geladas at Kosheme constituted grass blades 55.4%, grass undergrounds 13.2%, grass bulbs 5.6%, grass seeds 5.4%, herb leaves 4.0, fruits 7.3%, and cereal crops 5.6%. Grass blade consumption increased with increasing green grass availability, while underground food consumption increased with decreasing green grass availability, and vice versa. Southern geladas spent significantly more time feeding on the grass blades and herb leaves and significantly less time on bulbs during the wet season than the dry season. Underground grass items (rhizomes and corms) were not consumed during the wet season, but made up 22.3% of the dry season diet. Thus, although grass blades are staple diet items for geladas, underground diet items are important "fallback foods" at Kosheme. Our result shows insights into the dietary flexibility southern geladas adopt to cope with human-modified landscapes of the north-central Ethiopian Highlands. Thus, the study contributes to a better understanding of how changing environments shape primate ecology and evolution.

Activity Budget and Feeding Ecology of Geladas (Theropithecus gelada obscurus) around Abogedam Church West of Debre Berhan Town, Ethiopia.

Geladas are the most distinctive of Ethiopian endemic mammals, representing the last extant species of primate genus that have a very restricted distribution in the northern Ethiopian plateau. The activity budget and feeding ecology of geladas (Theropithecus gelada obscurus) were studied around Abogedam Church, Ethiopia, from May to October 2014, encompassing dry and wet seasons. The scan sampling method was applied to collect behavioural data on the identified band. Activity scans were collected at 15-minute intervals for up to five minutes duration from 0700 to 1730 h. The activity recorded for each individual was the first activity that lasts for five seconds. During each scan, individuals were recorded as performing activities: feeding, moving, resting, playing, aggression, grooming, sexual activity, and others. On average, geladas devoted 57.19% feeding, 14.82% resting, 14.92% moving, 4.83% playing, 2.53% aggression, 4.14% grooming, 1.23% sexual activity, and 0.34% other activities such as vocalization, defecation, and urination. Forty-one plant species were consumed by geladas that belonged to 18 families of which 53.66% were grasses. This study provides basic information on further studies and motivates conservationists to plan the management of unprotected areas at the vicinity of agricultural lands where such endemic animals dwell.

Distribution and conservation status of Boutourlini's blue monkey (Cercopithecus mitis boutourlinii), a Vulnerable subspecies endemic to western Ethiopia.

Reliable data on the distribution and threats facing primate species are crucial to identifying priority sites for conservation and designing effective management plans. Boutourlini's blue monkey (Cercopithecus mitis boutourlinii) is a little-known arboreal primate endemic to the forests of western Ethiopia. This subspecies is categorized as Vulnerable on the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List and the distribution of extant populations is largely unknown. To increase our knowledge of the spatial distribution and conservation status of Boutourlini's blue monkey, we carried out intensive reconnaissance surveys from January 2010 to May 2011 across approximately 40% of its potential range and conducted interviews with local people at each of the survey locations. We carried out geospatial analyses and mapped the distribution of Boutourlini's blue monkey localities with respect to elevation, protected area status, and changes in forest cover over time using ArcGIS 10.4.0. Through our surveys, we discovered 30 previously unknown Boutourlini's blue monkey populations in three administrative regions of western Ethiopia (Amhara, Oromia, and Southern Nations, Nationalities and People's Regions). A total of 34 different groups were sighted and counted at the survey sites, averaging 14.7 members (range 8-23) per group. There are now 32 Boutourlini's blue monkey populations of recently confirmed occurrence at altitudes ranging from 1039 to 2780 m asl, seven in forests of greater than 50 km2. Crop feeding by Boutourlini's blue monkeys was reported by people at seven sites and confirmed through direct observation at three of these sites. None of the known extant populations of Boutourlini's blue monkeys occur within a strictly protected area (e.g., national park) where exploitative human activities are outlawed. A complete reassessment of the distribution and conservation status of Boutourlini's blue monkey will require further surveys across the remaining approximately 60% of its potential range.

The effect of season and post-fire on habitat preferences of the endangered Swayne's hartebeest (Alcelaphus buselaphus swaynei) in Maze National Park, Ethiopia.

BACKGROUND: The availability of preferred habitats determines the spatial and temporal distribution of herbivores in savanna ecosystems. Understanding habitat preference of a targeted wildlife species is crucial for developing effective conservation strategies. Habitat preference of large grazers in connection to grass height and post-fire effect has been debated for the last century. Here, we examined the effects of season, grass height and burning on the habitat preference on Swayne's hartebeest (Alcelaphus buselaphus swaynei) in Maze National Park. Data for seasonal habitat selection were collected using both direct observation along established transect lines and pellet counting using permanently established plots. Every month, we measured grass height commonly preferred by Swayne's hartebeest in grassland habitat. Starting from the first week of burning, we recorded the abundance of Swayne's hartebeest in both burned and unburned grassland patches. RESULTS: From detected pellets, 94.3% were recorded in the grassland habitat indicating that other habitat types are less used despite their extensive cover > 50% of the Park. During wet and early dry seasons, Swayne's hartebeest exclusively preferred grassland habitat. We found that 85.2% (n = 1079) and 85.3% (n = 593) of individuals observed in areas with a grass height below 30 cm during wet and early-dry seasons, respectively; while 70.9% (n = 2288) preferred grass height below 30 cm during the dry season. The density of Swayne's hartebeest in burned grassland area was higher than unburned grassland areas up to 150 days since burning. However, in unburned grassland areas, the density was initially low but showed increasing trend for consecutive days, reaching similar density with burned areas after 150 days since burning. CONCLUSION: Swayne's hartebeest exclusively preferred grassland habitat, particularly during wet and early-dry seasons, shortest available grass height in all seasons and were attracted to burned grassland areas. Our results suggested that fire played an important role in maintaining habitat quality in grassland, and that management should continue using controlled burning as a tool for the conservation of Swayne's hartebeest. However, we remain cautious of our findings given the paucity of information regarding other confounding factors and the absence of long-term data on fire disturbance.

Human-Gelada Conflict and Attitude of the Local Community toward the Conservation of the Southern Gelada (Theropithecus gelada obscurus) around Borena Saynit National Park, Ethiopia.

Understanding the extent of human-primate conflict in areas where habitat overlap reaches at maximum level between local farmers and primates is crucial to developing conservation and management strategies. One of the threats of southern geladas (Theropithecus gelada obscurus) is conflict with the local farmers due to cereal crop raiding. This study was carried out to compare the intensity of human-gelada conflicts and the attitude of local farmers toward the conservation of geladas among local communities neighboring Borena Sayint National Park (BSNP) and an unprotected site far from the BSNP. Data from 356 randomly selected respondents were collected using questionnaire interview method. Overall, 92.13% of the respondents considered southern geladas as cereal crop pests. Those major complaints against geladas did not differ significantly between the two study sites: crop raiding (p = 0.435) and competition with livestock for pasture (p = 0.990). Overall, 61.78% of the respondents surrounding the Park had positive attitude while 60.00% from the unprotected villages had negative attitude toward geladas, and the difference was significant (p < 0.001). Most of the respondents from both sites had labor bottleneck and station themselves in the sites to guard their cereal crops from being raided by southern geladas. Respondents from the Park boundaries had more interest on the conservation of geladas than those respondents from the unprotected site (p < 0.001). Conservation education program and better human-gelada conflict mitigation measures should be taken to change the negative conservation attitude of local famers toward the southern geladas.

Use of cultivated foods and matrix habitat by Bale monkeys in forest fragments: Assessing local human attitudes and perceptions.

Primates inhabiting human-modified landscapes often exploit matrix habitat to supplement their diet with cultivated foods, at times resulting in economic losses and conflict with local people. Understanding human-nonhuman primate interactions and the attitudes and perceptions of local people towards crop feeding species are crucial to designing effective species-based management plans. Over a 12-month period, we used scan sampling to study the consumption of cultivated foods and matrix use patterns by two habituated groups of Bale monkeys (Chlorocebus djamdjamensis), Ethiopian-endemic bamboo specialists, in two forest fragments (Kokosa and Afursa) set amidst human settlements and farmland in the southern Ethiopian Highlands. Further, we conducted interviews with local people to document their attitudes and perceptions towards Bale monkeys at the two sites. We found that Bale monkeys at Kokosa, a more degraded habitat by most measures, consumed significantly more cultivated foods than their counterparts at Afursa. Moreover, Bale monkeys at Kokosa spent significantly more time in the matrix than in the forest habitat, while monkeys at Afursa spent significantly less time in the matrix than in the forest habitat. Not surprisingly, local people displayed a more negative attitude towards monkeys inhabiting Kokosa than those inhabiting Afursa. The differences in Bale monkey cultivated food consumption and matrix use patterns-as well as in local people's attitudes and perceptions towards Bale monkeys-between Kokosa and Afursa are probably associated with differences in habitat structure, degree of habitat alteration, and land-use practices between the sites. We conclude that to ensure long-term coexistence between Bale monkeys and local people in human-modified landscapes, it is vital to incorporate nearby matrix habitats into management plans and to work closely with local communities to develop effective nonlethal crop protection strategies, thereby reducing the likelihood of negative interactions between Bale monkeys and humans.

A preliminary survey of medium and large-sized mammals from Lebu Natural Protected Forest, Southwest Showa, Ethiopia.

This study was conducted to determine the species composition and diversity of medium and large-sized mammals from Lebu Natural Protected Forest, Ethiopia. Surveys were conducted to record mammals through direct observation and indirect evidence from three habitat types, namely: natural forest, bushland, and riverine forest. A total of 15 mammalian species were recorded. The species recorded were Papio anubis, Chlorocebus aethiops, Tragelaphus scriptus, Canis aureus, Crocuta crocuta, Panthera pardus, Procavia capensis, Colobus guereza, Sylvicapra grimmia, Orycteropus afer, Helogale parvula, Hystrix cristata, Lepus fagani, Potamochoerus larvatus, and Phacochoeus africanus. A total of 223 records of observations were compiled. About 74% of these records (N = 167) were obtained from direct sight, whereas the rest was recorded through indirect evidence. The dominant order recorded was order Primates (57.4%) followed by order Artiodactyla (17.5%) while the least record was order Lagomorpha (1.34%). The species richness varied across the stratified habitat types. However, there is no significant difference in Shannon-Wiener Index values between the habitat types. The species diversity of the study area was H' = 2.119. The present study area is of great potential area for the conservation of the species. Long-term detailed studies should be carried out for effective conservation and management initiatives in the study area.

Foraging ecology of African wolves (Canis lupaster) and its implications for the conservation of Ethiopian wolves (Canis simensis).

African wolves (AWs) are sympatric with endangered Ethiopian wolves (EWs) in parts of their range. Scat analyses have suggested a dietary overlap between AWs and EWs, raising the potential for exploitative competition, and a possible conservation threat to EWs. However, in contrast to that of the well-studied EW, the foraging ecology of AWs remains poorly characterized. Accordingly, we studied the foraging ecology of radio-collared AWs (n = 11 individuals) at two localities with varying levels of anthropogenic disturbance in the Ethiopian Highlands, the Guassa-Menz Community Conservation Area (GMCCA) and Borena-Saynt National Park (BSNP), accumulating 845 h of focal observation across 2952 feeding events. We also monitored rodent abundance and rodent trapping activity by local farmers who experience conflict with AWs. The AW diet consisted largely of rodents (22.0%), insects (24.8%), and goats and sheep (24.3%). Of the total rodents captured by farmers using local traps during peak barley production (July to November) in GMCCA, averaging 24.7 ± 8.5 rodents/hectare/day, 81% (N = 3009) were scavenged by AWs. Further, of all the rodents consumed by AWs, most (74%) were carcasses. These results reveal complex interactions between AWs and local farmers, and highlight the scavenging niche occupied by AWs in anthropogenically altered landscapes in contrast to the active hunting exhibited by EWs in more intact habitats. While AWs cause economic damage to local farmers through livestock predation, they appear to play an important role in scavenging pest rodents among farmlands, a pattern of behaviour which likely mitigates direct and indirect competition with EWs. We suggest two routes to promote the coexistence of AWs and EWs in the Ethiopian highlands: local education efforts highlighting the complex role AWs play in highland ecosystems to reduce their persecution, and enforced protection of intact habitats to preserve habitat preferred by EWs.

Is Colobus guereza gallarum a valid endemic Ethiopian taxon?

Black-and-white colobus (Colobus guereza Rüppell, 1835) are arboreal Old World monkeys inhabiting large parts of the deciduous and evergreen forests of sub-Saharan Africa. Two of the eight subspecies of Colobus guereza are endemic to Ethiopia: C. g. gallarum and C. g. guereza. However, the validity of the Ethiopian taxa is debated and observed morphological differences were attributed to clinal variation within C. g. guereza. To date, no molecular phylogeny of the Ethiopian guerezas is available to facilitate their taxonomic classification. We used mitochondrial DNA markers from 94 samples collected across Ethiopia to reconstruct a phylogeny of respective mitochondrial lineages. In our phylogenetic reconstruction, augmented by orthologous sequence information of non-Ethiopian black-and-white colobus from GenBank, we found two major Ethiopian mitochondrial clades, with one being largely congruent with the distribution of C. g. guereza. The second clade was found only at two locations in the eastern part of the putative range of C. g. gallarum. This second lineage clustered with the lowland form, C. g. occidentalis, from central Africa, whereas the C. g. guereza lineages clustered with C. g. caudatus and C. g. kikuyuensis from Kenya and northern Tanzania. These two guereza lineages diverged around 0.7 million years ago. In addition, mitochondrial sequence information does not support unequivocally a distinction of C. g. caudatus and C. g. kikuyuensis. Our findings indicate a previous biogeographic connection between the ranges of C. g. occidentalis and C. g. gallarum and a possible secondary invasion of Ethiopia by members of the C. g. guereza-C. g. caudatus-C. g. kikuyuensis clade. Given these phylogenetic relationships, our study supports the two-taxa hypothesis, making C. g. gallarum an Ethiopian endemic, and, in combination with the taxon's very restricted range, makes it one of the most endangered subspecies of black-and-white colobus.