A local mode study of ring puckering effects in the infrared spectra of cyclopentane.

We report and interpret recently recorded high-resolution infrared spectra for the fundamentals of the CH2 scissors and CH stretches of gas phase cyclopentane at -26.1 and -50 °C, respectively. We extend previous theoretical studies of this molecule, which is known to undergo barrierless pseudorotation due to ring puckering, by constructing local mode Hamiltonians of the stretching and scissor vibrations for which the frequencies, couplings, and linear dipoles are calculated as functions of the pseudorotation angle using B3LYP/6-311++(d,p) and MP2/cc-pVTZ levels of theory. Symmetrization (D5h) of the vibrational basis sets leads to simple vibration/pseudorotation Hamiltonians whose solutions lead to good agreement with the experiment at medium resolution, but which miss interesting line fractionation when compared to the high-resolution spectra. In contrast to the scissor motion, pseudorotation leads to significant state mixing of the CH stretches, which themselves are Fermi coupled to the scissor overtones.

Cyclohexane Vibrations: High-Resolution Spectra and Anharmonic Local Mode Calculations.

High-resolution infrared absorption spectra of cyclohexane have been recorded from 1100 to 4000 cm-1 at room temperature and 241 K. Cyclohexane is an oblate symmetric top with D3d symmetry. A rotational analysis was obtained for the ν27 (eu) and ν14 (a2u) CH2 scissor modes at 1452.9 and 1456.4 cm-1, respectively. Several combination modes were also assigned and rotationally analyzed. The C-H stretching modes are perturbed by overtone and combination modes of the CH2 scissor vibrations, and an anharmonic local mode calculation was needed to interpret the spectra. The four main strong allowed C-H stretching modes appear as two a2u eu pairs near at 2862 and 2933 cm-1. The Fermi-resonance local mode model coupling terms give physical insight into the effects that organize the cyclohexane vibrational energy levels. The unstrained cyclohexane molecule is a useful paradigm for six-membered rings in larger chemical and biological systems.

Neopentane Vibrations: High Resolution Spectra and Anharmonic Calculations.

High resolution infrared absorption spectra of neopentane (2,2-dimethylpropane, C5H12) have been recorded in the mid-infrared region at room temperature and 232 K. Neopentane is a spherical top with Td symmetry. The high symmetry and low temperature allow for detailed comparison of theory and experiment for the analysis of the fundamental vibrations. Four strong bands with characteristic rotational structure of t2 modes were observed at 1257.6, 1369.4, 1472.5, and 1489.0 cm-1, and a fifth very weak band was found near 924.2 cm-1. Quantum chemical calculations (B3LYP/6-311++(d,p)/VPT2 and harmonic CCSD(T)-pVTZ) were carried out in both normal and local mode representations to help with the vibrational assignments and elucidate the couplings. The local mode representation combined with the experimental observations highlights the important potential couplings between neighboring methyl groups and their influence on observed transitions. We have analyzed spectral regions where the models failed to provide agreement and have identified those couplings responsible for the differences.

Isobutane Infrared Bands: Partial Rotational Assignments, ab Initio Calculations, and Local Mode Analysis.

High-resolution infrared spectra of the symmetric top isobutane CH(CH3)3 were assigned with the help of ab initio calculations. The strong parallel band ν5(a1) with an origin at 1396.54741(76) cm-1 and the ν4(a1) mode, the CH2 scissors, at 1478.20363(41) cm-1 were rotationally analyzed. The bands in the C-H stretching region were assigned with the help of an anharmonic calculation and a local mode analysis.

Recent Trends in Stratospheric Chlorine From Very Short-Lived Substances.

Very short-lived substances (VSLS), including dichloromethane (CH2Cl2), chloroform (CHCl3), perchloroethylene (C2Cl4), and 1,2-dichloroethane (C2H4Cl2), are a stratospheric chlorine source and therefore contribute to ozone depletion. We quantify stratospheric chlorine trends from these VSLS (VSLCltot) using a chemical transport model and atmospheric measurements, including novel high-altitude aircraft data from the NASA VIRGAS (2015) and POSIDON (2016) missions. We estimate VSLCltot increased from 69 (±14) parts per trillion (ppt) Cl in 2000 to 111 (±22) ppt Cl in 2017, with >80% delivered to the stratosphere through source gas injection, and the remainder from product gases. The modeled evolution of chlorine source gas injection agrees well with historical aircraft data, which corroborate reported surface CH2Cl2 increases since the mid-2000s. The relative contribution of VSLS to total stratospheric chlorine increased from ~2% in 2000 to ~3.4% in 2017, reflecting both VSLS growth and decreases in long-lived halocarbons. We derive a mean VSLCltot growth rate of 3.8 (±0.3) ppt Cl/year between 2004 and 2017, though year-to-year growth rates are variable and were small or negative in the period 2015-2017. Whether this is a transient effect, or longer-term stabilization, requires monitoring. In the upper stratosphere, the modeled rate of HCl decline (2004-2017) is -5.2% per decade with VSLS included, in good agreement to ACE satellite data (-4.8% per decade), and 15% slower than a model simulation without VSLS. Thus, VSLS have offset a portion of stratospheric chlorine reductions since the mid-2000s.

Study of infrared emission spectroscopy for the B(1)Δg-A(1)Πu and B'(1)Σg(+)-A(1)Πu systems of C2.

Thirteen bands for the B(1)Δg-A(1)Πu system and eleven bands for the B'(1)Σg(+)-A(1)Πu system of C2 were identified in the Fourier transform infrared emission spectra of hydrocarbon discharges. The B'(1)Σg(+)v = 4 and the B(1)Δg v = 6, 7, and 8 vibrational levels involved in nine bands were studied for the first time. A direct global analysis with Dunham parameters was carried out satisfactorily for the B(1)Δg-A(1)Πu system except for a small perturbation in the B(1)Δg v = 6 level. The calculated rovibrational term energies up to B(1)Δg v = 12 showed that the level crossing between the B(1)Δg and d(3)Πg states is responsible for many of the prominent perturbations in the Swan system observed previously. Nineteen forbidden transitions of the B(1)Δg-a(3)Πu transition were identified and the off-diagonal spin-orbit interaction constant AdB between d(3)Πg and B(1)Δg was derived as 8.3(1) cm(-1). For the B'(1)Σg(+)-A(1)Πu system, only individual band analyses for each vibrational level in the B'(1)Σg(+) state could be done satisfactorily and Dunham parameters obtained from these effective parameters showed that the anharmonic vibrational constant ωexe is anomalously small (nearly zero). Inspection of the RKR (Rydberg-Klein-Rees) potential curves for the B'(1)Σg(+) and X(1)Σg(+) states revealed that an avoided crossing or nearly avoided crossing may occur around 30,000 cm(-1), which is responsible for the anomalous molecular constants in these two states.

Note: Improved line strengths of rovibrational and rotational transitions within the X(3)Σ(-) ground state of NH.

Recently, a line list including positions and transition strengths was published for the NH X(3)Σ(-) rovibrational and rotational transitions. The calculation of the transition strengths requires a conversion of transition matrix elements from Hund's case (b) to (a). The method of this conversion has recently been improved during other work on the OH X(2)Π rovibrational transitions, by removing an approximation that was present previously. The adjusted method has been applied to the NH line list, resulting in more accurate transition strengths. An updated line list is presented that contains all possible transitions with v' and v″ up to 6, and J up to between 25 and 44, depending on the band.

Simultaneous analysis of the Ballik-Ramsay and Phillips systems of C2 and observation of forbidden transitions between singlet and triplet states.

6229 lines of the Ballik-Ramsay system (b(3)Σg (-)-a(3)Πu) and the Phillips system (A(1)Πu-X(1)Σg (+)) of C2 up to v = 8 and J = 76, which were taken from the literature or assigned in the present work, were analyzed simultaneously by least-squares fitting with 82 Dunham-like molecular parameters and spin-orbit interaction constants between the b(3)Σg (-) and X(1)Σg (+) states with a standard deviation of 0.0037 cm(-1) for the whole data set. As a result of the deperturbation analysis, the spin-orbit interaction constant AbX was determined as 6.333(7) cm(-1) and the energy difference between the X(1)Σg (+) and a(3)Πu states was determined as 720.008(2) cm(-1) for the potential minima or 613.650(3) cm(-1) for the v = 0 levels with Merer and Brown's N(2) Hamiltonian for (3)Π states, which is about 3.3 cm(-1) larger than the previously determined value. Due to this sizable change, a new energy-level crossing was found at J = 2 for v = 3 (F1) of b(3)Σg (-) state and v = 6 of X(1)Σg (+) state, where the strong interaction causes a nearly complete mixing of the wave functions of the b(3)Σg (-) and X(1)Σg (+) states and the forbidden transitions become observable. Using the predictions of our deperturbation analysis, we were able to identify 16 forbidden transitions between the singlet and triplet states at the predicted frequencies with the expected intensities, which verifies our value for the energy difference between the X(1)Σg (+) and a(3)Πu states.

Relationship between dipole moments and harmonic vibrational frequencies in diatomic molecules.

Electric dipole moments and harmonic vibrational frequencies are two of the most important molecular properties in many fields of chemistry and physics. With the aid of classical physics, an empirical relationship between them was obtained for diatomic molecules as µd = kq(2)/(ReµAωe(2))(1/2), where k is a constant and µd, q, Re, µA, and ωe are the dipole moment, atomic charge, equilibrium bond length, reduced mass, and equilibrium vibrational frequency, respectively. This relation also provides the atomic charge q as a function of molecular dipole moment. Comparisons with over 60 molecules were made to test this relationship. For typical ionic molecules such as the alkali halides, the predicted dipole moments are in good agreement with the observed data assuming the atomic charges are 1 e. For general polar molecules, the estimated atomic charges obtained from the electric dipole moments are in good agreement with ab initio results for natural bond orbital and/or Mulliken populations.

Relationships between dipole moments of diatomic molecules.

The dipole moment is one of the most important physical properties of a molecule. We present a combination rule for the dipole moments of related diatomic molecules. For molecules AB, AX, BY, and XY from two different element groups in the periodic table, if their elements make a small parallelogram, reliable predictions can be obtained. Our approach is particularly useful for systems with heavy atoms. For a large set of molecules tested, the average difference of the prediction from experimental data is less than 0.2 debye (D). The dipole moments for heavy molecules such as GaCl, InBr, SrCl, and SrS, for which no experimental data are available at present, are predicted to be 3.17, 3.76, 3.85 and 11.54 D, respectively.

Line strengths of rovibrational and rotational transitions within the X³Σ⁻ ground state of NH.

A new line list for rovibrational and rotational transitions, including fine structure, within the NH X³Σ⁻ ground state has been created. It contains line intensities in the form of Einstein A and f-values, for all possible bands up to v' = 6, and for J up to between 25 and 44. The intensities are based on a new dipole moment function (DMF), which has been calculated using the internally contracted multi-reference configuration interaction method with an aug-cc-pV6Z basis set. The programs RKR1, LEVEL, and PGOPHER were used to calculate line positions and intensities using the most recent spectroscopic line position observations and the new DMF, including the rotational dependence on the matrix elements. The Hund's case (b) matrix elements from the LEVEL output (available as Supplement 1 of the supplementary material) have been transformed to the case (a) form required by PGOPHER. New relative intensities for the (1,0) band have been measured, and the calculated and observed Herman-Wallis effects are compared, showing good agreement. The line list (see Supplement 5 of the supplementary material) will be useful for the study of NH in astronomy, cold and ultracold molecular systems, and in the nitrogen chemistry of combustion.

Molecular opacities for exoplanets.

Spectroscopic observations of exoplanets are now possible by transit methods and direct emission. Spectroscopic requirements for exoplanets are reviewed based on existing measurements and model predictions for hot Jupiters and super-Earths. Molecular opacities needed to simulate astronomical observations can be obtained from laboratory measurements, ab initio calculations or a combination of the two approaches. This discussion article focuses mainly on laboratory measurements of hot molecules as needed for exoplanet spectroscopy.

Accurate analytic potential and Born-Oppenheimer breakdown functions for MgH and MgD from a direct-potential-fit data analysis.

New high-resolution visible Fourier transform emission spectra of the A (2)Π â†’ X (2)Σ(+) and B' (2)Σ(+) → X (2)Σ(+) systems of (24)MgD and of the B' (2)Σ(+) → X (2)Σ(+) systems of (25,26)MgD and (25,26)MgH have been combined with earlier results for (24)MgH in a multi-isotopologue direct-potential-fit analysis to yield improved analytic potential energy and Born-Oppenheimer breakdown functions for the ground X (2)Σ(+) state of MgH. Vibrational levels of the ground state of (24)MgD were observed up to v" = 15, which is bound by only 30.6 ± 0.10 cm(-1). Including deuteride and minor magnesium isotopologue data allowed us also to determine the adiabatic Born-Oppenheimer breakdown effects in this molecule. The fitting procedure used the recently developed Morse/Long-Range (MLR) potential energy function, whose asymptotic behavior incorporates the correct inverse-power form. A spin-splitting radial correction function to take account of the (2)Σ spin-rotation interaction was also determined. Our refined value for the ground-state dissociation energy of the dominant isotopologue ((24)MgH) is D(e) = 11,104.25 ± 0.8 cm (-1), in which the uncertainty also accounts for the model dependence of the fitted D(e) values for a range of physically acceptable fits. We were also able to determine the marked difference in the well depths of (24)MgH and (24)MgD (with the deuteride potential curve being 7.58 ± 0.30 cm(-1) deeper than that of the hydride) as well as smaller well-depth differences for the minor (25,26)Mg isotopologues. This analytic potential function also predicts that the highest bound level of (24)MgD is v" = 16 and that it is bound by only 2.73 ± 0.10 cm(-1).

Empirical correction of thermal responses in the Solar Occultation for Ice Experiment nitric oxide measurements and initial data validation results.

The Solar Occultation for Ice Experiment (SOFIE) makes broadband transmission measurements centered at 5.32 µm to determine the concentration profile of nitric oxide (NO). These measurements show a signal oscillation due to detector temperature variations that severely limit the accuracy of NO retrievals if corrections are not applied. An empirical correction was developed to remove this instrumental error. This paper describes the correction, its impact on the retrieval, and presents a comparison from 87 to 105 km versus coincident atmospheric chemistry experiment-Fourier transform spectrometer (ACE-FTS) measurements. The southern hemisphere (SH) shows excellent agreement between the datasets, with statistically insignificant differences. The northern hemisphere (NH) SOFIE measurements exhibit a low bias of -18.5% compared to ACE-FTS. NH measurements (sunrise observations) are still under study, and only SH NO data (sunset observations) are currently publicly available as of SOFIE data version 1.2.

Rotational analysis and deperturbation of the A2Π â†’ X2Σ+ and B'2Σ+ → X2Σ+ emission spectra of MgH.

Deperturbation analysis of the A(2)Π â†’ X(2)Σ(+) and B(')(2)Σ(+) → X(2)Σ(+) emission spectra of (24)MgH is reported. Spectroscopic data for the v = 0 to 3 levels of the A (2)Π state and the v = 0 to 4 levels of the B'(2)Σ(+) state were fitted together using a single Hamiltonian matrix that includes (2)Π and (2)Σ(+) matrix elements, as well as off-diagonal elements coupling several vibrational levels of the two states. A Dunham-type fit was performed and the resulting Y(l,0) and Y(l,1) coefficients were used to generate Rydberg-Klein-Rees (RKR) potential curves for the A (2)Π and the B'(2)Σ(+) states. Vibrational overlap integrals were computed from the RKR potentials, and the off-diagonal matrix elements coupling the electronic wavefunctions (a(+) and b) were determined. Zero point dissociation energies (D(0)) of the A(2)Π and B'(2)Σ(+) states of (24)MgH were determined to be 12,957.5 ± 0.5 and 10,133.6 ± 0.5 cm(-1), respectively. Using the Y(0,1) coefficients, the equilibrium internuclear distances (r(e)) of the A(2)Π and B'(2)Σ(+) states were determined to be 1.67827(1) Å and 2.59404(4) Å, respectively.

Note: Deperturbation of the ν3 band of BeD2.

High rotational levels of the 001 (Σ(u)) state of BeD(2) are perturbed by the nearby 03(3)0 (Φ(u)) state. Deperturbation analysis results in an experimental value for the vibrational energy of the 030 level.

Optical-optical double resonance spectroscopy of the C(2)Pi-A(2)Pi and D(2)Sigma(+)-A(2)Pi transitions of SrF.

Optical-optical double resonance spectroscopy has been used to record rotationally resolved spectra of the C(2)Pi-A(2)Pi and D(2)Sigma(+)-A(2)Pi transitions of SrF. In the investigation, the spectrum of a previously unobserved (2)Sigma(+)-A(2)Pi transition was recorded. The new (2)Sigma(+) state was found to lie lower in energy than the previously labeled D(2)Sigma(+) (v = 0) state by an amount equal to the vibrational spacing of the D(2)Sigma(+) state. Therefore, the new (2)Sigma(+) state was assigned as the v = 0 level of the D(2)Sigma(+) state and the previous labeling of the vibrational quantum numbers of the D(2)Sigma(+) state should be increased by 1. Spectroscopic parameters were determined for the C(2)Pi, D(2)Sigma(+) (v = 0), and D(2)Sigma(+) (v = 1) states. The D(2)Sigma(+) (v = 0) state was found to be perturbed, most likely by the spin-orbit components of the C(2)Pi (v =1) state. The spin-orbit constant of the C(2)Pi state was found to decrease significantly relative to the A(2)Pi state, similar to CaF and SrOH. Finally, the C(2)Pi and D(2)Sigma(+) states do not appear to form a unique perturber/pure precession pair of states.

Ground state potential energy curve and dissociation energy of MgH.

New high-resolution visible emission spectra of the MgH molecule have been recorded with high signal-to-noise ratios using a Fourier transform spectrometer. Many bands of the A 2Pi-->X 2Sigma+ and B' 2Sigma+-->X 2Sigma+ electronic transitions of 24MgH were analyzed; the new data span the v' = 0-3 levels of the A 2Pi and B'2Sigma+ excited states and the v''=0-11 levels of the X 2Sigma+ ground electronic state. The vibration-rotation energy levels of the perturbed A 2Pi and B' 2Sigma+ states were fitted as individual term values, while those of the X 2Sigma+ ground state were fitted using the direct-potential-fit approach. A new analytic potential energy function that imposes the theoretically correct attractive potential at long-range, and a radial Hamiltonian that includes the spin-rotation interaction were employed, and a significantly improved value for the ground state dissociation energy of MgH was obtained. The v''=11 level of the X 2Sigma+ ground electronic state was found to be the highest bound vibrational level of 24MgH, lying only about 13 cm(-1) below the dissociation asymptote. The equilibrium dissociation energy for the X 2Sigma+ ground state of 24MgH has been determined to be De=11104.7+/-0.5 cm(-1) (1.37681+/-0.00006 eV), whereas the zero-point energy (v''=0) is 739.11+/-0.01 cm(-1). The zero-point dissociation energy is therefore D0=10365.6+/-0.5 cm(-1) (1.28517+/-0.00006 eV). The uncertainty in the new experimental dissociation energy of MgH is more than 2 orders of magnitude smaller than that for the best value available in the literature. MgH is now the only hydride molecule other than H2 itself for which all bound vibrational levels of the ground electronic state are observed experimentally and for which the dissociation energy is determined with subwavenumber accuracy.