Effects of manipulating player numbers on technical and physical performances participating in an Australian football small-sided game.

In Australian Football (AF), small-sided games (SSGs) are used extensively to replicate particular technical, tactical or physiological responses. Whilst research on SSGs has been extensive in soccer, in AF it has been limited to agility demands and exploring the effect of field dimensions on technical skill (i.e., handballing) and physical responses of senior athletes. Therefore, this study investigated the effect of four different SSG player number conditions (5v5, 5v6, 6v6, 7v7) on the technical (e.g., kicking) and physical (i.e., odometer, m-min-1, max velocity and percentage of high intensity running) performance outcomes in 22 sub-elite youth AF players. Particular constraints were applied to the SSG to ensure the focus was on kicking (i.e., after each handball a kick must be performed). The results of this study demonstrate when more technical events are required under more pressured situations (i.e., physical and time) the 5v6 condition appears to be most appropriate. However, when the focus is on kicking to a contested possession (i.e., kicking to leading or covered players) balanced player numbers (e.g., 6v6) would appear optimal. Alternatively, when the SSG focus is on increasing physiological demands (i.e., m.min-1) lower player density conditions (i.e., 5v5) appear more suitable.

The Development of a Field-Based Kicking Assessment to Evaluate Australian Football Kicking Proficiency.

Purpose: In Australian Football (AF), the ability to proficiently kick the ball is a critical skill and has been shown to be advantageous to a team's successful performance; however, a valid and reliable match referenced kicking assessment remains absent. Therefore, the aim of this study was to develop a valid and reliable AF kicking proficiency assessment comparative to match play kicking performance. Method: Youth male Australian Football players (n = 251) from different stages within the AF talent pathway were recruited. The developed AFFB-DKA (Australian Football Field-Based-Dynamic Kicking Assessment) considered particular constraints of match play kicking demands such as kick type, distance, delivery, and locomotion of the player receiving the ball. In total, 14 kicks were completed during the test. Validity (i.e., content, logical and construct) and reliability (i.e., test re-test) were assessed. Results: Findings indicate the kicking test can distinguish across and between age (i.e., U14; U16; U18) and skill groups (i.e., club; sub-elite; elite). The timeframe between U14 and U16 was identified as a potential key period where kicking skill acquisition may be most impressionable; however, further research is recommended to support this. Conclusion: The developed AFFB-DKA is the first Australian Football specific kicking assessment to consider and apply match play kicking constraints to make a more representative, valid and reliable assessment.

Validity and reliability of an Australian football small-sided game to assess kicking proficiency.

In Australian Football (AF), small sided games have been used extensively as an alternative training method for technical and physical adaptations. Considering their application to AF, it is surprising a valid and reliable small-sided game kicking assessment remains absent. Therefore, the aim of this study was to develop a valid and reliable 5v6 Australian football small-sided game kicking proficiency assessment. Youth male AF players (n = 145) from different stages within the AF talent pathway were recruited. Validity (i.e., logical and construct) and reliability (i.e., test re-test) were assessed. The largest kicking proficiency difference was between U13 and U16 players and between novice and sub-elite players. Between the ages of U16 and U18 kicking proficiency appears to stabilise. The Australian football small-sided kicking assessment was 97% successful in identifying players as either novice or sub-elite. Larger physical performance (i.e., odometer, m/min-1 and %HIR) outputs were noted between U14 and U18 players and novice and sub-elite players. Collectively, these findings suggest the Australian football small-sided kicking assessment is a valid and reliable AF kicking proficiency assessment tool and may provide worthwhile information to coaches regarding kicking performance along the AFL pathway, to profile player strengths whilst identifying specific areas of improvement.

Australian Football Skill-Based Assessments: A Proposed Model for Future Research.

Identifying sporting talent remains a difficult task due to the complex nature of sport. Technical skill assessments are used throughout the talent pathway to monitor athletes in an attempt to more effectively predict future performance. These assessments, however, largely focus on the isolated execution of key skills devoid of any game context. When assessments are representative of match-play and applied in a setting where all four components of competition (i.e., technical, tactical, physiological, and psychological) are assessed within an integrated approach, prediction of talent is more likely to be successful. This article explores the current talent identification technical skill assessments, with a particular focus on Australian Football, and proposes a 5-level performance assessment model for athlete assessment. The model separates technical game skill on a continuum from Level-1 (i.e., laboratory analysis) to Level-5 (i.e., match-play). These levels, using the assumptions of the expert performance model and representative learning design theory, incorporate a step-wise progression of performance demands to more closely represent match-play conditions. The proposed model will provide researchers and practitioners with a structured framework to consider when assessing, or developing, new assessments of technical game-based skill.

Video-based training to improve perceptual-cognitive decision-making performance of Australian football umpires.

Decision-making is a central component of the in-game performance of Australian football umpires; however, current umpire training focuses largely on physiological development with decision-making skills development conducted via explicit lecture-style meetings with limited practice devoted to making actual decisions. Therefore, this study investigated the efficacy of a video-based training programme, aimed to provide a greater amount of contextualised visual experiences without explicit instruction, to improve decision-making skills of umpires. Australian football umpires (n = 52) were recruited from metropolitan and regional Division 1 competitions. Participants were randomly assigned to an intervention or control group and classified according to previous umpire game experience (i.e., experienced; less experienced). The intervention group completed a 12-week video-based decision-making training programme, with decision-making performance assessed at pre-training, and 1-week retention and 3-week retention periods. The control group did not complete any video-based training. Results indicated a significant Group (intervention; Control) × Test interaction (F(1, 100) = 3.98; P = 0.02, partial ῆ2 = 0.074), with follow-up pairwise comparisons indicating significant within-group differences over time for the intervention group. In addition, decision-making performance of the less experienced umpires in the intervention group significantly improved (F(2, 40) = 5.03, P = 0.01, partial ῆ2 = 0.201). Thus, video-based training programmes may be a viable adjunct to current training programmes to hasten decision-making development, especially for less experienced umpires.

Validity of the days supply field in pharmacy administrative claims data for the identification of blister packaging of medications.

PURPOSE: Pharmacy claims data is often used in pharmacoepidemiology studies, but no studies to date have examined whether it was possible to identify the use of blister packs in these databases. We aimed to determine whether medications dispensed in days divisible by 7 are more likely to be blister packed than medications dispensed in other quantities. METHODS: Community pharmacies in Manitoba were invited to participate in a mail-out survey to identify the use of blister packaging for up to 25 patients who had a solid oral medication dispensed from April 1, 2012 to March 31, 2014. Eligible medications were identified using the population-based province-wide retail pharmacy network. Algorithms for identifying the use of blister packaging were determined by comparing the proportion of fills that confirmed blister pack use between different days supply quantities. RESULTS: Twenty-seven out of 32 pharmacies that agreed to participate completed the survey. The total number of prescriptions in the analysis was 2045 of which 131 (6.4%) were dispensed in blister packaging. Overall, prescriptions dispensed in days divisible by 7 yielded a 72.5% sensitivity, 86.6% specificity, 30.3% PPV, and 97.9% NPV compared with prescriptions dispensed in other quantities. A 28-day to 30-day comparison yielded an 87.9% sensitivity, 96.1% specificity, 64.6% PPV, and 99.0% NPV. CONCLUSION: While the NPV was high, the PPV for identifying blister packaging using the days supply field in pharmacy claims data was modest given the low prevalence in blister pack use. The best predictor occurred when 28 days was compared with 30 days. KEY POINTS Blister packs are arranged in 4 × 7 compartments and are often used to improve adherence, but no studies have examined whether it was possible to identify the use of blister packs using the days supply field in pharmacy claims data. Findings show that a 28-day supply yielded a high sensitivity and specificity for identifying the use of blister packaging compared with a 30-day supply, but there is potential for misclassification. Future studies directed at examining subgroups that are more likely to use blister packs and replication of findings using other data sources in other jurisdictions are encouraged.

Effectiveness of a 16 week gymnastics curriculum at developing movement competence in children.

OBJECTIVES: Internationally, children's movement competence levels are low. This study's aim was to evaluate the effectiveness of a 16 week gymnastics curriculum on stability, locomotive and object control skills and general body coordination. It was hypothesised that the gymnastics intervention group would demonstrate significant improvements beyond a PE comparison group. DESIGN: This study used a non-randomised control design. The intervention and comparison groups were drawn from three primary schools. The study followed the transparent reporting of evaluations with nonrandomized designs (TREND) statement for reporting. METHODS: A total of 333 children (51% girls, 41% intervention) with a mean age of 8.1 years (SD=1.1) participated. Intervention children (16 weeks×2h of gymnastics) were compared to children who received (16×2h) standard PE curriculum. Children's movement competence was assessed using the Test of Gross Motor Development-2, Stability Skills Assessment and the Körper-Koordinationstest für Kinder. Multilevel linear mixed models, accounting for variation at the class level and adjusted for age and sex, were used to assess intervention relative to comparison differences in all aspects of movement competence. RESULTS: Stability and object control skills showed a significant (p<0.05) intervention×time interaction effect. No difference was found in locomotor skills or general coordination. CONCLUSIONS: Gymnastics is effective at developing stability skills and object control skills without hindering the development of locomotor skills or general coordination. Accelerated learning of stability skills may support the development of more complex movement skills.

Shorter time to first injury in first year professional football players: A cross-club comparison in the Australian Football League.

OBJECTIVES: Australian Football League (AFL) players have a high risk of injury. Anecdotally, this injury risk is greater in emerging players (i.e. those in their first year), compared with established players (with 3+ years of experience). This study aimed to conduct the first comparison of injury risk and playing experience in these two player groups across a large number of AFL clubs. DESIGN: Prospective, cohort. METHODS: Injuries, game participation and training participation were collected weekly by 8 AFL clubs for 61 emerging and 64 established players. Injury incidence rates (IIR) and Cox proportional hazard models for time to first injury, separately for games and training, were computed. RESULTS: The game IIR was significantly higher for emerging than established players: 45.6 (95% CI: 35.7, 57.6) versus 18.3 (95% CI: 13.1, 24.9) per 1000 game-hours. Emerging players also had a higher training IIR than did the established players: 9.6 (95% CI: 7.6, 11.9) versus 8.9 (95% CI: 7.0, 11.1) per 1000 training-hours. Emerging players were significantly less likely to remain injury free in games than established players (HR=3.46, 95% CI: 1.27, 9.45). A similar outcome was seen in training sessions, although to a lesser degree (HR=1.41, 95% CI: 1.19, 1.69). CONCLUSIONS: Despite efforts to modify the playing/training program of emerging players, this group remain at greater risk of injury in games and training sessions, compared with established players. Continued efforts should be made toward understanding reasons for this increased risk to better prevent injury during the early years of a professional football career.

Fundamental Movement Skills Are More than Run, Throw and Catch: The Role of Stability Skills.

INTRODUCTION: In motor development literature fundamental movement skills are divided into three constructs: locomotive, object control and stability skills. Most fundamental movement skills research has focused on children's competency in locomotor and object control skills. The first aim of this study was to validate a test battery to assess the construct of stability skills, in children aged 6 to 10 (M age = 8.2, SD = 1.2). Secondly we assessed how the stability skills construct fitted into a model of fundamental movement skill. METHOD: The Delphi method was used to select the stability skill battery. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was used to assess if the skills loaded onto the same construct and a new model of FMS was developed using structural equation modelling. RESULTS: Three postural control tasks were selected (the log roll, rock and back support) because they had good face and content validity. These skills also demonstrated good predictive validity with gymnasts scoring significantly better than children without gymnastic training and children from a high SES school performing better than those from a mid and low SES schools and the mid SES children scored better than the low SES children (all p < .05). Inter rater reliability tests were excellent for all three skills (ICC = 0.81, 0.87, 0.87) as was test re-test reliability (ICC 0.87-0.95). CFA provided good construct validity, and structural equation modelling revealed stability skills to be an independent factor in an overall FMS model which included locomotor (r = .88), object control (r = .76) and stability skills (r = .81). DISCUSSION: This study provides a rationale for the inclusion of stability skills in FMS assessment. The stability skills could be used alongside other FMS assessment tools to provide a holistic assessment of children's fundamental movement skills.

Assessment of decision-making performance and in-game physical exertion of Australian football umpires.

The aim of this study is to investigate the effects of in-game physical exertion on decision-making performance of Australian football umpires. Fifteen Australian football umpires (Mage = 36, s = 13.5 years; Mgames umpired = 235.2, s = 151.3) volunteered to participate in the study. During five competitive Australian football pre-season games, measures of in-game physical exertion (blood lactate levels, global positioning system [GPS]) and decision-making performance (video-based test) were obtained. There were no significant correlations between physical exertion in a particular quarter and decision-making performance in either the same quarter or any other quarter. Video-based decision-making performance was effected by time in game χ(2)(3) = 24.24, P = 0.001, with Quarter 4 performance significantly better than both Quarter 2 and Quarter 3. In-game physical exertion (blood lactate) significantly decreased over the course of the game χ(2)(3) = 11.58, P = 0.009. Results indicate no definable link between in-game physical exertion and decision-making performance. It is, however, presumed that decision-making performance may be affected by the time or context of the game. Future research is warranted to explore the relationship between physical exertion and decision-making performance to potentially inform Australian football umpire training programmes that replicate in-game physical and decision-making demands.

Development of a valid and reliable video-based decision-making test for Australian football umpires.

OBJECTIVES: To develop a valid and reliable video-based decision-making test to examine and monitor the decision-making performance of Australian football umpires. DESIGN: Validation assessments with test re-test reliability. METHODS: A video-based decision-making test was developed from a pool of 156 video-based decision-making situations. Australian football umpires (n=56) and players (n=45) participated in two separate phases of analysis. In phase one, players completed a test re-test reliability assessment with a 100 video-clips. Results indicated 24 clips were a reliable measure of decision-making performance. In phase two, umpires completed a test re-test protocol with 80 clips, 24 of which were the reliable clips identified by the player cohort in phase one. These 24 clips provided a measure of construct validity. Face and content validity were assessed by skill acquisition specialists, expert umpire coaches, and umpires. RESULTS: From each of phase one and two of the reliability assessment, 24 clips were found to have a kappa value greater than 0.30, providing a total of 48 reliable video-clips. Construct validity was supported, with the umpire group performing significantly better than the player group on the 24 clips presented to both groups on each testing occasion. Face and content validity were also demonstrated. CONCLUSIONS: This investigation demonstrated the ability prospectively to determine reliability and validity of the video-based decision-making test designed specifically for Australian football umpires. Establishing the validity and reliability of the video clips ensures future investigations can accurately and consistently measure the decision-making performance of Australian football umpires.

The relationship between physical capacity and match performance in elite Australian football: a mediation approach.

The aim of this study was to verify if yo-yo intermittent recovery test (level 2) (yo-yo IR2) score is linked to Australian football (AF) performance through match exercise intensity. Six week prospective study design. Twenty-one data sets were recorded from nine individual players that completed the yo-yo IR2, and played an Australian Football League match in the first five rounds of the 2010 season wearing a global positioning system (GPS) unit. Simple mediation modelling was used to analyse the inter-relationship between yo-yo IR2 score, match exercise intensity and AF performance. Playing position and experience were also incorporated into the model to identify conditional affects. A significant direct relationship was observed between yo-yo IR2 and number of ball disposals (p<0.1) and a significant indirect relationship was observed between yo-yo IR2 and number of ball disposals through distance travelled at high intensity (HIR m min(-1)) (p<0.1). Moderation analysis showed that playing position affected the relationship between of yo-yo IR2 and HIR m min(-1) (p<0.1) and HIR m min(-1) and total ball disposals (p<0.1). Playing experience also significantly affected the relationship between HIR m min(-1) and total ball disposals. This study is the first to identify the effects of yo-yo IR2 on total ball disposals through HIR m min(-1) performed during AF matches, and that playing position and playing experience affect these interactions.

Repeated sprint training improves intermittent peak running speed in team-sport athletes.

The aim of this study was to compare the effect of 2 repeated sprint training interventions on an intermittent peak running speed (IPRS) test designed for Australian Rules football. The test required participants to perform 10 × 10-m maximal efforts on an 80-m course every 25 seconds, for each of which the mean peak speed (kilometers per hour) was recorded to determine IPRS. The training interventions were performed twice weekly for 4 weeks immediately before regular football training. In the constant volume intervention (CVol), sprint repetition number remained at 10 (n = 9), and in the linear increase in volume (LIVol) intervention, repetition number increased linearly each week by 2 repetitions (n = 12). Intermittent peak running speed, 300-m shuttle test performance, and peak running speed were assessed before and upon completion of training. All measures were compared to a control group (CON; n = 8) in which players completed regular football training exclusively. Intermittent peak running speed performance in CVol and LIVol improved significantly (p < 0.01) by 5.2 and 3.8%, respectively, with no change in IPRS for CON. There were no differences in IPRS changes between CVol and LIVol. Additionally, peak running speed improved significantly (p < 0.01) by 5.1% for CVol, whereas 300-m shuttle performance improved significantly (p < 0.01) by 2.6% for LIVol only. Intermittent peak running speed, 300-m shuttle performance and peak running speed were improved after 4 weeks of training; however, progressively increasing sprint repetition number had no greater advantage on IPRS adaptation. Additionally, exclusive regular football training over a 4-week period is unlikely to improve IPRS, peak running speed, or 300-m shuttle performance.

Reliability and validity of a novel intermittent peak running speed test for Australian football.

Australian football requires frequent intermittent sprinting close to peak running speed. However, tests assessing the capability to maintain intermittent peak running speed are not reported in scientific literature. Therefore, our objective is to report the reliability and validity of a novel intermittent peak running speed test. The intermittent peak running speed test required footballers to perform 10 repetitions on 25-second intervals. Each repetition required 15-m jogging, 20-m acceleration to peak speed, 10 m to sustain peak speed, 20-m deceleration, and finally a 15-m jog. Intermittent peak running speed was determined by portable global positioning system. To assess reliability, 26 footballers performed the intermittent peak running speed test on 2 occasions 3-5 days apart. Our results revealed that average peak speed had a coefficient of variation of 2.2% and an intraclass correlation of 0.91. To assess construct validity, average peak speed was compared between elite, sub-elite, and regional footballers. The average peak speed of the elite footballers (28.6 ± 1.7 km · h(-1)) was higher than that of the sub-elite (27.4 ± 1.7 km · h(-1)) and regional (27 ± 1.9 km · h(-1)) competitors (p < 0.05). Our study revealed that the intermittent peak running speed test possesses acceptable reliability and distinguishes between elite and sub-elite footballers.

The contribution of structured activity and deliberate play to the development of expert perceptual and decision-making skill.

The developmental histories of 32 players in the Australian Football League (AFL), independently classified as either expert or less skilled in their perceptual and decision-making skills, were collected through a structured interview process and their year-on-year involvement in structured and deliberate play activities retrospectively determined. Despite being drawn from the same elite level of competition, the expert decision-makers differed from the less skilled in having accrued, during their developing years, more hours of experience in structured activities of all types, in structured activities in invasion-type sports, in invasion-type deliberate play, and in invasion activities from sports other than Australian football. Accumulated hours invested in invasion-type activities differentiated between the groups, suggesting that it is the amount of invasion-type activity that is experienced and not necessarily intent (skill development or fun) or specificity that facilitates the development of perceptual and decision-making expertise in this team sport.

Skill acquisition in tennis: research and current practice.

Common to most tennis players is the desire to improve performance. Equipped with the necessary motivation, these players can spend countless hours rehearsing tennis' skills under the guidance of a coach. Often, these practices feature repetitious hitting, with little consideration given to the actual context in which the game's skills are expressed. Alternatively, training sessions that amount to little more than poorly structured game-play, devoid of any specific goals or objectives, are also discernible. Either way, player learning and long-term performance are unlikely to be optimised. So, where tennis coaches have long relied on certain instructional approaches and types of practices to enhance player performance, their efficacy is uncertain. Indeed, a growing body of research suggests that players stand to benefit from the earlier introduction of variable and random practices and feedback that is more intrinsic in nature rather than time-honoured overly prescriptive coaching. This review considers contemporary skill acquisition research in relation to current tennis coaching practice.