The Perception of Similarity, Difference and Opposition.

After considering the pervasiveness of same/different relationships in Psychology and the experimental evidence of their perceptual foundation in Psychophysics and Infant and Comparative Psychology, this paper develops its main argument. Similarity and diversity do not complete the panorama since opposition constitutes a third relationship which is distinct from the other two. There is evidence of this in the previous literature investigating the perceptual basis of opposition and in the results of the two new studies presented in this paper. In these studies, the participants were asked to indicate to what extent pairs of simple bi-dimensional figures appeared to be similar, different or opposite to each other. A rating task was used in Study 1 and a pair comparison task was used in Study 2. Three main results consistently emerged: Firstly, opposition is distinct from similarity and difference which, conversely, are in a strictly inverse relationship. Secondly, opposition is specifically linked to something which points in an allocentrically opposite direction. Thirdly, alterations to the shape of an object are usually associated with the perception of diversity rather than opposition. The implications of a shift from a dyadic (same/different) to a triadic (similar/different/opposite) paradigm are discussed in the final section.

Does Thinking in Opposites in Order to Think Differently Improve Creativity?

In this paper, we focus on the link between thinking in opposites and creativity. Thinking in opposites requires an intuitive, productive strategy, which may enhance creativity. Given the importance of creativity for the well-being of individuals and society, finding new ways to enhance it represents a valuable goal in both professional and personal contexts. We discuss the body of evidence that exists concerning the importance of the first representation of the structure of a problem to be solved, which determines the baseline representation and sets limits on the area within which a problem solver will explore. We then review a variety of interventions described in the literature on creativity and insight problem solving that were designed to overcome fixedness and encourage people to move away from stereotypical solutions. Special attention is paid to the research carried out in the context of problem solving, which provides evidence that prompting people to "think in opposites" is beneficial. We suggest that an extended investigation of the effects of this strategy in various types of tasks related to creativity is an interesting line of research to follow. We discuss the rationale supporting this claim and identify specific questions, both theoretical and methodological, for future research to address.

Training People to Think in Opposites Facilitates the Falsification Process in Wason's Rule Discovery Task.

With reference to Wason's 2-4-6 rule discovery task, this study investigated the effects of a simple training session that prompted participants to "think in opposites". The results showed a significant improvement in performance under the training condition when compared to the control condition, both in terms of the proportion of participants who discovered the correct rule and how quickly it was discovered. An analysis of whether or not participant submitted test triples formed of descending numbers showed that fewer participants under the control condition considered ascending/descending to represent a critical dimension and, in any case, this occurred later (that is, after more test triples) than in the training condition. These results are discussed in relation to previous literature showing improvements in performance that were prompted by strategies involving "contrast" as a critical factor. The limitations of the study are discussed, as well as the benefits of a training program like this, which is non-content related.

Physicochemical characterization and quantification of nanoplastics: applicability, limitations and complementarity of batch and fractionation methods.

A comprehensive physicochemical characterization of heterogeneous nanoplastic (NPL) samples remains an analytical challenge requiring a combination of orthogonal measurement techniques to improve the accuracy and robustness of the results. Here, batch methods, including dynamic light scattering (DLS), nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA), tunable resistive pulse sensing (TRPS), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM), as well as separation/fractionation methods such as centrifugal liquid sedimentation (CLS) and field-flow fractionation (FFF)-multi-angle light scattering (MALS) combined with pyrolysis gas chromatography mass spectrometry (pyGC-MS) or Raman microspectroscopy (RM) were evaluated for NPL size, shape, and chemical composition measurements and for quantification. A set of representative/test particles of different chemical natures, including (i) polydisperse polyethylene (PE), (ii) (doped) polystyrene (PS) NPLs, (iii) titanium dioxide, and (iv) iron oxide nanoparticles (spherical and elongated), was used to assess the applicability and limitations of the selected methodologies. Particle sizes and number-based concentrations obtained by orthogonal batch methods (DLS, NTA, TRPS) were comparable for monodisperse spherical samples, while higher deviations were observed for polydisperse, agglomerated samples and for non-spherical particles, especially for light scattering methods. CLS and TRPS offer further insight with increased size resolution, while detailed morphological information can be derived by electron microscopy (EM)-based approaches. Combined techniques such as FFF coupled to MALS and RM can provide complementary information on physical and chemical properties by online measurements, while pyGC-MS analysis of FFF fractions can be used for the identification of polymer particles (vs. inorganic particles) and for their offline (semi)quantification. However, NPL analysis in complex samples will continue to present a serious challenge for the evaluated techniques without significant improvements in sample preparation.

Inter-Individual Variations: A Challenge for the Standardisation of Complement Activation Assays.

Introduction: The role of the human immune system in pathologic responses to chemicals including nanomaterials was identified as a gap in current hazard assessments. However, the complexity of the human immune system as well as interspecies variations make the development of predictive toxicity tests challenging. In the present study, we have analysed to what extent fluctuations of the complement system of different individuals will have an impact on the standardisation of immunological tests. Methods: We treated commercially available pooled sera (PS) from healthy males, individual sera from healthy donors and from patients suffering from cancer, immunodeficiency and allergies with small molecules and liposomes. Changes of iC3b protein levels measured in enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays served as biomarker for complement activation. Results: The level of complement activation in PS differed significantly from responses of individual donors (p < 0.01). Only seven out of 32 investigated sera from healthy donors responded similarly to the pooled serum. This variability was even more remarkable when investigating the effect of liposomes on the complement activation in sera from donors with pre-existing pathologies. Neither the 26 sera of donors with allergies nor sera of 16 donors with immunodeficiency responded similar to the PS of healthy donors. Allergy sufferers showed an increase in iC3b levels of 4.16-fold changes when compared to PS treated with liposomes. Discussion: Our studies demonstrate that the use of pooled serum can lead to an over- or under-estimation of immunological response in particular for individuals with pre-existing pathologies. This is of high relevance when developing medical products based on nanomaterials and asks for a review of the current practice to use PS from healthy donors for the prediction of immunological effects of drugs in patients. A better understanding of individual toxicological responses to xenobiotics should be an essential part in safety assessments.

Determination of the Transport Efficiency in spICP-MS Analysis Using Conventional Sample Introduction Systems: An Interlaboratory Comparison Study.

In single particle inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (spICP-MS), the transport efficiency is fundamental for the correct determination of both particle number concentration and size. In the present study, transport efficiency was systematically determined on three different days with six carefully characterised gold nanoparticle (AuNP) suspensions and in seven European and US expert laboratories using different ICP-MS instruments and spICP-MS software. Both particle size-(TES)-and particle frequency-(TEF)-methods were applied. The resulting transport efficiencies did not deviate much under ideal conditions. The TEF method however systematically resulted in lower transport efficiencies. The extent of this difference (0-300% rel. difference) depended largely on the choice and storage conditions of the nanoparticle suspensions used for the determination. The TES method is recommended when the principal measurement objective is particle size. If the main aim of the measurement is the determination of the particle number concentration, the TEF approach could be preferred as it might better account for particle losses in the sample introduction system.

Opposites in Reasoning Processes: Do We Use Them More Than We Think, but Less Than We Could?

Our aim in this paper is to contribute toward acknowledging the general role of opposites as an organizing principle in the human mind. We support this claim in relation to human reasoning by collecting evidence from various studies which shows that "thinking in opposites" is not only involved in formal logical thinking, but can also be applied in both deductive and inductive reasoning, as well as in problem solving. We also describe the results of a series of studies which, although they have been developed within a number of different theoretical frameworks based on various methodologies, all demonstrate that giving hints or training reasoners to think in terms of opposites improves their performance in tasks in which spontaneous thinking may lead to classic biases and impasses. Since we all possess an intuitive idea of what opposites are, prompting people to "think in opposites" is something which is undoubtedly within everyone's reach and in the final section, we discuss the potential of this strategy and suggest possible future research directions of systematic testing the benefits that might arise from the use of this technique in contexts beyond those tested thus far. Ascertaining the conditions in which reasoners might benefit will also help in terms of clarifying the underlying mechanisms from the point of view, for instance, of analytical, conscious processing vs. automatic, unconscious processing.

TiO2@BSA nano-composites investigated through orthogonal multi-techniques characterization platform.

Biocompatible coating based on bovine serum albumin (BSA) was applied on two different TiO2 nanoparticles (aeroxide P25 and food grade E171) to investigate properties and stability of resulting TiO2@BSA composites, under the final perspective to create a "Safe-by-Design" coating, able to uniform, level off and mitigate surface chemistry related phenomena, as naturally occurring when nano-phases come in touch with proteins enriched biological fluids. The first step towards validating the proposed approach is a detailed characterization of surface chemistry with the quantification of amount and stability of BSA coating deposited on nanoparticles' surfaces. At this purpose, we implemented an orthogonal multi-techniques characterization platform, providing important information on colloidal behavior, particle size distribution and BSA-coating structure of investigated TiO2 systems. Specifically, the proposed orthogonal approach enabled the quantitative determination of bound and free (not adsorbed) BSA, a key aspect for the design of intentionally BSA coated nano-structures, in nanomedicine and, overall, for the control of nano-surface reactivity. In fact, the BSA-coating strategy developed and the orthogonal characterisation performed can be extended to different designed nanomaterials in order to further investigate the protein-corona formation and promote the implementation of BSA engineered coating as a strategy to harmonize the surface reactivity and minimize the biological impact.

Particle size analysis of pristine food-grade titanium dioxide and E 171 in confectionery products: Interlaboratory testing of a single-particle inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry screening method and confirmation with transmission electron microscopy.

Titanium dioxide is a white colourant authorised as food additive E 171 in the EU, where it is used in a range of alimentary products. As these materials may contain a fraction of particulates with sizes below 100 nm and current EU regulation requires specific labelling of food ingredient to indicate the presence of engineered nanomaterials there is now a need for standardised and validated methods to appropriately size and quantify (nano)particles in food matrices. A single-particle inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (spICP-MS) screening method for the determination of the size distribution and concentration of titanium dioxide particles in sugar-coated confectionery and pristine food-grade titanium dioxide was developed. Special emphasis was placed on the sample preparation procedure, crucial to reproducibly disperse the particles before analysis. The transferability of this method was tested in an interlaboratory comparison study among seven experienced European food control and food research laboratories equipped with various ICP-MS instruments and using different software packages. The assessed measurands included the particle mean diameter, the most frequent diameter, the percentage of particles (in number) with a diameter below 100 nm, the particles' number concentration and a number of cumulative particle size distribution parameters (D0, D10, D50, D99.5, D99.8 and D100). The evaluated method's performance characteristics were, the within-laboratory precision, expressed as the relative repeatability standard deviation (RSDr), and the between-laboratory precision, expressed as the relative reproducibility standard deviation (RSDR). Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) was used as a confirmatory technique and served as the basis for bias estimation. The optimisation of the sample preparation step showed that when this protocol was applied to the relatively simple sample food matrices used in this study, bath sonication turned out to be sufficient to reach the highest, achievable degree of dispersed constituent particles. For the pristine material, probe sonication was required. Repeatability and reproducibility were below 10% and 25% respectively for most measurands except for the lower (D0) and the upper (D100) bound of the particle size distribution and the particle number concentration. The broader distribution of the lower and the upper bounds could be attributed to instrument-specific settings/setups (e.g. the timing parameters, the transport efficiency, type of mass-spectrometer) and software-specific data treatment algorithms. Differences in the upper bound were identified as being due to the non-harmonised application of the upper counting limit. Reporting D99.5 or D99.8 instead of the effectively largest particle diameter (D100) excluded isolated large particles and considerably improved the reproducibility. The particle number-concentration was found to be influenced by small differences in the sample preparation procedure. The comparison of these results with those obtained using electron microscopy showed that the mean and median particle diameter was, in all cases, higher when using spICP-MS. The main reason for this was the higher size detection limit for spICP-MS plus the fact that some of the analysed particles remained agglomerated/aggregated after sonication. Single particle ICP-MS is a powerful screening technique, which in many cases provides sufficient evidence to confirm the need to label a food product as containing (engineered) titanium dioxide nanomaterial according to the current EU regulatory requirements. The overall positive outcome of the method performance evaluation and the current lack of alternative standardised procedures, would indicate this method as being a promising candidate for a full validation study.

Characterisation of food grade titania with respect to nanoparticle content in pristine additives and in their related food products.

Titanium dioxide is a white colourant authorised as food additive E171 in the EU and is applied in a range of food products. Currently the EU specifications for E171 do not refer to the characterisation of particle size distribution; however, this may be requested in the near future. Only a few studies have been published to date reporting data on the size distribution of food grade titanium dioxide. The aim of this study was to characterise the size distribution of titanium dioxide particles contained in eight confectionery products and the pristine titanium dioxide samples used in each of the products. This allowed the direct comparison of the particle size distribution in both the pristine and the extracted materials. By using various analytical techniques, such as transmission electron microscopy, single particle inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (sp-ICPMS) and centrifuge liquid sedimentation (CLS) for the characterisation and quantification of the titanium dioxide particle sizes, the impact of the instrumentation on the results was systematically studied. The volume-specific surface area (VSSA) and crystalline structure were also determined for all additives.

Challenges in isolating silica particles from organic food matrices with microwave-assisted acidic digestion.

Synthetic amorphous silica is widely used in food processing as a food additive (E551) due to its properties as a flavour carrier and anti-caking agent. The direct measurement of E551 suspended or embedded in complex matrices is difficult without prior removal of the matrix components. The isolation of nanoparticles from the matrix is hence the first step towards their comprehensive characterization. Due to its complexity, matrix removal is frequently not trivial and may cause modification of the number-size distribution of the silica particles. The isolation of engineered silica nanoparticles by removal of the matrix with microwave-assisted acidic digestion is demonstrated methodologically using both monodisperse (size standards) and polydisperse (E551) particles spiked into ultrapure water and tomato sauce. For the characterization of the isolated nanoparticles, asymmetric field flow fractionation (AF4) coupled to multi-angle laser light scattering (MALS) and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) were chosen. The combination of ICP-MS and ultracentrifugation allowed for the rapid and reliable measurement of the dissolved fraction of SiO2. The results show that microwave-assisted acidic digestion partially dissolves silica nanoparticles. Moreover, the digestion conditions, in particular the low pH value, lead to strong agglomeration of the particles. A complete deagglomeration is not achieved, even when exposing the suspension to elevated sonication doses. The consequence of these two findings is a size distribution of particles after acidic digestion that is different from the original distribution before digestion. This result may have an impact on the evaluation of whether the material is a nanomaterial according to the recommended definition of the European Commission. Graphical abstract.

The perceived severity of a disease and the impact of the vocabulary used to convey information: using Rasch scaling in a simulated oncological scenario.

BACKGROUND: Healthcare staff should be aware of the importance that patients may attach to the words that are used to convey information. This is relevant in terms of the patients' understanding. Modeling how people understand the information conveyed in a medical context may help health practitioners to better appreciate the patients' approach. PURPOSE: 1) Analyze the participants' self-reported perception of the type of information provided in an oncological scenario in terms of three dimensions: impairment to their health, risks associated with the disease itself and commitment required to undergo the treatment; and 2) show the benefits of using Rasch scaling for the analysis of the data. Starting from a survey, Rasch scaling produces a unidimensional logit-interval scale relating to the extent to which each item conveys a latent dimension. These were related to structure, in particular concerning communication by means of opposite vs. unipolar language. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: The participants rated 82 items of information in a questionnaire regarding their perception of impairment to their health (H) and the risks (R) and commitment relating to the treatment prescribed (T). RESULTS: The scaling produced an item bank for healthcare staff to consult in order to estimate the importance the recipient would be likely to attach to the vocabulary used and the likely impact of the information in terms of the patient's condition. Furthermore, the use of opposites was generally associated with a clearer impression of whether the information given was generally only very negative or slightly negative, whereas 'neutral' information was often perceived as being very negative. ACTUAL FINDINGS: Is possible to estimate people's understanding more precisely (in terms of H, R and T) which can help healthcare practitioners to modulate the way they convey information. LIMITATIONS: The participants in the study were healthy volunteers and the context was simulated.

A fast and selective method for the determination of 8 carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in rubber and plastic materials.

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) have been detected in rubber and plastic components of a number of consumer products such as toys, tools for domestic use, sports equipment, and footwear, with carbon black and extender oils having been identified as principal sources. In response to these findings, the European Union Regulation (EU) No. 1272/2013 was adopted in December 2013, amending entry 50 in Annex XVII to the Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation, and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH) directive establishing a restriction on the content of eight individual carcinogenic PAHs in plastic and rubber parts of products supplied to the public. This work proposes a simple, relatively fast, and cost effective method for determining the concentrations of each of these eight carcinogenic PAHs for compliance testing. Existing methodologies were taken as a starting point, improving in particular the extraction and the clean-up procedures. Randall hot extraction and ultrasonic extraction were compared with regard to their extraction efficiency. Randall hot extraction proved to be more efficient (10-40%, depending on PAH). Sample extract clean-up performance was qualitatively assessed for silica-packed columns and molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) solid phase extraction (SPE) cartridges. The use of highly selective MIP-SPE cartridges removed most of the undesired contaminants, highlighting their superiority with regard to traditional, silica-based purification methodologies. The introduction of Randall-hot extraction for sample extraction and MIP-based solid phase extraction cartridges for selective clean-up represents a novel advance compared with previously reported methods in this field. In combination with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analyses in selected ion mode, the method was found to be excellent in terms of extraction efficiency, extract purity, and speed.

The effects of presenting oncologic information in terms of opposites in a medical context.

BACKGROUND: An extensive body of literature has demonstrated that many patients who have been asked to participate in clinical trials do not fully understand the informed consent forms. A parallel independent study has demonstrated that opposites have a special status in human cognitive organization: they are common to all-natural languages and are intuitively and naturally understood and learnt. PURPOSE: The study investigates whether, and how, the use of opposites impacts on doctor-patient communication: does using the terms "small-large" to describe a nodule (ie, bipolar communication) rather than speaking in terms of centimeters (ie, unipolar communication) affect a patient's understanding of the situation? And is it better to speak of "common-rare" side effects (ie, bipolar communication) instead of the number of people who have suffered from particular side effects (ie, unipolar communication)? METHODS: Two questionnaires were created and used, one presenting the information in terms of opposites (ie, bipolar communication) and another using unipolar communication. RESULTS: The participants' perception of their situation (in terms of feeling healthy-ill, being at high-low risk, and their treatment requiring high-low commitment) varied in the two conditions. Moreover, self-reported levels of understanding and satisfaction with how the information was communicated were higher when opposites were used. LIMITATIONS: Since this is the first study that addresses the merits of using bipolar structures versus unipolar structures in doctor-patient communication, further work is needed to consolidate and expand on the results, involving not only simulated but also real diagnostic contexts. CONCLUSION: The encouraging results imply that further testing of the use of opposites in informed consent forms and in doctor-patient communication is strongly advisable.

Identification of opposites and intermediates by eye and by hand.

In this eye-tracking and drawing study, we investigate the perceptual grounding of different types of spatial dimensions such as dense-sparse and top-bottom, focusing both on the participants' experiences of the opposite regions, e.g., O1: dense; O2: sparse, and the region that is experienced as intermediate, e.g., INT: neither dense nor sparse. Six spatial dimensions expected to have three different perceptual structures in terms of the point and range nature of O1, INT and O2 were analysed. Presented with images, the participants were instructed to identify each region (O1, INT, O2), first by looking at the region, and then circumscribing it using the computer mouse. We measured the eye movements, identification times and various characteristics of the drawings such as the relative size of the three regions, overlaps and gaps. Three main results emerged. Firstly, generally speaking, intermediate regions were not different from the poles on any of the indicators: overall identification times, number of fixations, and locations. Some differences emerged with regard to the duration of fixations for point INTs and the number of fixations for range INTs between two range poles (O1, O2). Secondly, the analyses of the fixation locations showed that the poles support the identification of the intermediate region as much as the intermediate region supports the identification of the poles. Finally, the relative size of the three areas selected in the drawing task were consistent with the classification of the regions as points or ranges. The analyses of the gaps and the overlaps between the three areas showed that the intermediate is neither O1 nor O2, but an entity in its own right.

Pleasures of the Mind: What Makes Jokes and Insight Problems Enjoyable.

In this paper, a parallel analysis of the enjoyment derived from humor and insight problem solving is presented with reference to a "general" Theory of the Pleasures of the Mind (TPM) (Kubovy, 1999) rather than to "local" theories regarding what makes humor and insight problem solving enjoyable. The similarity of these two cognitive activities has already been discussed in previous literature in terms of the cognitive mechanisms which underpin getting a joke or having an insight experience in a problem solving task. The paper explores whether we can learn something new about the similarities and differences between humor and problem solving by means of an investigation of what makes them pleasurable. In the first part of the paper, the framework for this joint analysis is set. Two descriptive studies are then presented in which the participants were asked to report on their experiences relating to solving visuo-spatial insight problems (Study 1) or understanding cartoons (Study 2) in terms of whether they were enjoyable or otherwise. In both studies, the responses were analyzed with reference to a set of categories inspired by the TPM. The results of Study 1 demonstrate that finding the solution to a problem is associated with a positive evaluation, and the most frequent explanations for this were reported as being Curiosity, Virtuosity and Violation of expectations. The results of Study 2 suggest that understanding a joke (Joy of verification) and being surprised by it (Feeling of surprise) were two essential conditions: when they were not present, the cartoons were perceived as not enjoyable. However, this was not enough to explain the motivations for the choice of the most enjoyable cartoons. Recognizing a Violation of expectations and experiencing a Diminishment in the cleverness or awareness initially attributed to the characters in the cartoon were the aspects which were most frequently indicated by the participants to explain why they enjoyed the joke. These findings are evaluated in the final discussion, together with their limitations and potential future developments.

Correlation of volatile carbonyl yields emitted by e-cigarettes with the temperature of the heating coil and the perceived sensorial quality of the generated vapours.

E-liquids generally contain four main components: nicotine, flavours, water and carrier liquids. The carrier liquid dissolves flavours and nicotine and vaporises at a certain temperature on the atomizer of the e-cigarette. Propylene glycol and glycerol, the principal carriers used in e-liquids, undergo decomposition in contact with the atomizer heating-coil forming volatile carbonyls. Some of these, such as formaldehyde, acetaldehyde and acrolein, are of concern due to their adverse impact on human health when inhaled at sufficient concentrations. The aim of this study was to correlate the yield of volatile carbonyls emitted by e-cigarettes with the temperature of the heating coil. For this purpose, a popular commercial e-liquid was machine-vaped on a third generation e-cigarette which allowed the variation of the output wattage (5-25W) and therefore the heat generated on the atomizer heating-coil. The temperature of the heating-coil was determined by infrared thermography and the vapour generated at each temperature underwent subjective sensorial quality evaluation by an experienced vaper. A steep increase in the generated carbonyls was observed when applying a battery-output of at least 15W corresponding to 200-250°C on the heating coil. However, when considering concentrations in each inhaled puff, the short-term indoor air guideline value for formaldehyde was already exceeded at the lowest wattage of 5W, which is the wattage applied in most 2nd generation e-cigarettes. Concentrations of acetaldehyde in each puff were several times below the short-term irritation threshold value for humans. Acrolein was only detected from 20W upwards. The negative sensorial quality evaluation by the volunteering vaper of the vapour generated at 20W demonstrated the unlikelihood that such a wattage would be realistically set by a vaper. This study highlights the importance to develop standardised testing methods for the assessment of carbonyl-emissions and emissions of other potentially harmful compounds from e-cigarettes. The wide variety and variability of products available on the market make the development of such methods and the associated standardised testing conditions particularly demanding.

Can Contraries Prompt Intuition in Insight Problem Solving?

This paper aims to test whether the use of contraries can facilitate spatial problem solving. Specifically, we examined whether a training session which included explicit guidance on thinking in contraries would improve problem solving abilities. In our study, the participants in the experimental condition were exposed to a brief training session before being presented with seven visuo-spatial problems to solve. During training it was suggested that it would help them to find the solution to the problems if they systematically transformed the spatial features of each problem into their contraries. Their performance was compared to that of a control group (who had no training). Two participation conditions were considered: small groups and individuals. Higher success rates were found in the groups exposed to training as compared to the individuals (in both the training and no training conditions), even though the time required to find a solution was longer. In general, participants made more attempts (i.e., drawings) when participating in groups than individually. The number of drawings done while the participants were trying to solve the problems did not increase after training. In order to explore if the quality (if not the number) of drawings was modified, we sampled one problem out of the seven we had used in the experiment (the "pigs in a pen" problem) and examined the drawings in detail. Differences between the training and no training conditions emerged in terms of properties focused on and transformed in the drawings. Based on these results, in the final discussion possible explanations are suggested as to why training had positive effects specifically in the group condition.

Differences between predictions of how a reflection behaves based on the behaviour of an object, and how an object behaves based on the behaviour of its reflection.

We studied adults' understanding of the relationship between objects and their reflections. Two studies investigated whether adults performed in a similar way when asked to predict the movement of a reflection in a flat mirror based on the movement of the corresponding object or, vice versa, predict the movement of the material object based on the movement of its reflection. We used simple movements in the experiments: movements in a straight line at various angles with respect to the mirror. Despite the simplicity of the task, some of the participants made incorrect predictions in a percentage of cases ranging from 0% to 54%, depending on the angle. Asymmetries between the two directions of prediction emerged, in particular in terms of types of error. Results confirmed a cognitive difference between deriving the reflected (virtual) world from the "real" (material) world and vice versa. In particular the expectation that something will be opposite in a mirror is more salient when people imagine how a reflection will be with respect to the material world rather than when they imagine how the material world will be with respect to a reflection.

Characterisation of mainstream and passive vapours emitted by selected electronic cigarettes.

Electronic cigarettes have achieved growing popularity since their introduction onto the European market. They are promoted by manufacturers as healthier alternatives to tobacco cigarettes, however debate among scientists and public health experts about their possible impact on health and indoor air quality means further research into the product is required to ensure decisions of policymakers, health care providers and consumers are based on sound science. This study investigated and characterised the impact of 'vaping' (using electronic cigarettes) on indoor environments under controlled conditions using a 30m(3) emission chamber. The study determined the composition of e-cigarette mainstream vapour in terms of propylene glycol, glycerol, carbonyls and nicotine emissions using a smoking machine with adapted smoking parameters. Two different base recipes for refill liquids, with three different amounts of nicotine each, were tested using two models of e-cigarettes. Refill liquids were analysed on their content of propylene glycol, glycerol, nicotine and qualitatively on their principal flavourings. Possible health effects of e-cigarette use are not discussed in this work. Electronic cigarettes tested in this study proved to be sources for propylene glycol, glycerol, nicotine, carbonyls and aerosol particulates. The extent of exposure differs significantly for active and passive 'vapers' (users of electronic cigarettes). Extrapolating from the average amounts of propylene glycol and glycerol condensed on the smoking machine filter pad to the resulting lung-concentration, estimated lung concentrations of 160 and 220mgm(-3) for propylene glycol and glycerol were obtained, respectively. Vaping refill liquids with nicotine concentrations of 9mgmL(-1) led to vapour condensate nicotine amounts comparable to those of low-nicotine regular cigarettes (0.15-0.2mg). In chamber studies, peak concentrations of 2200µgm(-3) for propylene glycol, 136µgm(-3) for glycerol and 0.6µgm(-3) for nicotine were reached. Carbonyls were not detected above the detection limits in chamber studies. Particles in the size range of 20nm to 300nm constantly increased during vaping activity and reached final peak concentrations of 7×10(6)particlesL(-1). Moreover, the tested products showed design flaws such as leakages from the cartridge reservoirs. Possible long term effects of e-cigarettes on health are not yet known. E-cigarettes, the impact of vaping on health and the composition of refill liquids require therefore further research into the product characteristics. The consumers would benefit from harmonised quality and safety improvements of e-cigarettes and refill liquids.