Preliminary Screening for the Anthelmintic Activity of Millettia zechiana Harms and Its Modifying Effect on Albendazole.

Helminthic infections affect a greater proportion of the world's population. This study determined the anthelmintic activity of Millettia zechiana and its modifying effect on albendazole. Powdered leaves of M. zechiana were successively extracted with petroleum ether, ethyl acetate, and ethanol. The anthelmintic potential of the M. zechiana leaf extracts and the modifying effects of the extracts on albendazole were determined on Pheretima posthuma. Phytochemical and gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy (GC-MS) analyses were performed to determine the chemical composition of each extract. The plant extracts of M. zechiana had few or all phytoconstituents such as tannins, saponins, flavonoids, glycosides, terpenoids, phytosterols, and alkaloids present. The IC50 obtained for albendazole, petroleum ether, ethyl acetate, and ethanol extracts for paralysis time were 0.936, 1.722, 1.283, and 1.348 mg/mL, respectively. The IC50 obtained for albendazole and the ethanol extract for death time were 4.638 and 4.988 mg/mL. The ethanol extract at 10 and 5 mg/mL caused death in the worms after 152.5 ± 8.66 minutes and 304.8 ± 7.27 minutes of exposure, respectively. Ethanol, ethyl acetate, and petroleum ether extracts of M. zechiana significantly modified the activity of albendazole at concentrations of 2.5 and 1.25 mg/mL (P < 0.0001). The ethanol extract which exhibited the best anthelminthic activity was fractionated through column chromatography, and five (5) fractions were obtained. Fractions 1, 2, 4, and 5 had the best paralytic activities against the worms. Fractions 1 and 2 demonstrated better helminthicidal activity than albendazole, which had an IC50 of 3.915. The GC-MS analysis of the ethanol, ethyl acetate, and petroleum ether extracts showed the presence of 10, 10, and 37 compounds, respectively, with 9-octadecenamide, (Z)-, n-hexadecanoic acid, oleic acid, and some aromatic compounds being the most predominant. The results obtained indicate that M. zechiana leaf extract possesses anthelmintic activity.

Enteric Protozoan Parasitosis and Associated Factors among Patients with and without Diabetes Mellitus in a Teaching Hospital in Ghana.

Background: Enteric protozoa infections (EPIs) could worsen clinical outcomes in patients with diabetes mellitus and therefore requires prompt and accurate diagnosis and attention. This study aimed to determine the burden of EPIs and their associated factors among patients with and without diabetics at the Komfo Anokye Teaching Hospital (KATH) in Ghana. Again, the diagnostic performance of parasitological techniques routinely used for diagnosis was assessed. Methods: A total of 240 participants (made up of 140 patients with diabetes and 100 patients without diabetes) were recruited into the study by simple random sampling from November 2020 to May 2021. Stool samples of participants were collected, along with their demographic information, and examined using the saline direct wet mount (DWM), formol-ether concentration (FEC), and modified Ziehl-Neelsen staining (ZNS) techniques for the presence of enteric protozoans. Results: Enteric protozoa were found among 62/140 (44.3%) diabetic patients and 13/100 (13.0%) nondiabetic patients. The predominant protozoa identified were Cryptosporidium spp. (17.86%) among patients with diabetes and Blastocystis hominis (7.0%) among patients without diabetes. EPI was associated with diabetes mellitus status (AOR = 3.48, 95% CI, 1.55-7.79), having diabetes for more than five years (AOR = 3.83, 95% CI, 1.65-8.86) and having comorbidity (AOR = 2.93, 95% CI, 1.33-6.45). The FEC technique had the highest sensitivity (100.0%), specificity 94.3% (95% CI, 91.35-97.22), and accuracy 95.0% (95% CI, 88.54-98.13) when compared to other techniques for diagnosis. Conclusion: EPIs are a significant health problem among patients with diabetes at KATH, and therefore antiparasitic drugs should be included in their treatment protocols for better health outcomes. Again, the FEC technique has demonstrated better performance in detecting EPIs and is therefore recommended to achieve early and accurate diagnosis of EPIs.

In Vitro Cercaricidal Activity, Acute Toxicity, and GC/MS Analysis of Some Selected Ghanaian Medicinal Plants.

Schistosomiasis is a human parasitic disease caused by the Schistosoma species and is recognised in public health as second to malaria in terms of its socioeconomic impact on humans. Four local plants native to many tribes in Ghana and known for their medicinal properties against some diseases were assessed for their cercaricidal activity against Schistosoma mansoni cercariae. The plants, namely, Newbouldia laevis stem bark (NLSB), Spathodea campanulata stem bark (SCSB), Momordica charantia leaves (MCL), and Ocimum viride leaves (OVL), were extracted for their active metabolites using methanol. Preliminary phytochemical screening was carried out on all plant extracts and powdered samples. The crude extracts were tested against S. mansoni cercariae in vitro using Balanites aegyptiaca as the positive control. The percentage of mortalities for each extract was recorded. Gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) analysis was conducted on all the plant extracts. Phytochemical analysis revealed the presence of saponins, glycosides, triterpenoids, sterols, alkaloids, flavonoids, and tannins in almost all the extracts. GC/MS analysis showed the presence of medicinally important active volatile compounds in each extract such as thymol, n-hexadecanoic acid, phytol, and maltol. All four plants showed relatively different levels of activity against S. mansoni cercariae at different times and concentrations. The LC50 values of the plant extracts were determined at the end of the assay. At 240 min, NLSB, SCSB, MCL, and OVL extracts had LC50 values of 487.564, 429.898, 197.696, and 0.129 µg/mL, respectively. Hence, this study revealed the potency of Ocimum viride leaves, Momordica charantia leaves, Spathodea campanulata stem bark, and Newbouldia laevis stem bark against S. mansoni. These plants could therefore be exploited as possible candidates for curbing schistosomiasis.

The Aqueous Stem Bark Extract of Alstonia boonei Exhibits Anticataract Activity in Sprague Dawley Rat.

In Africa, Alstonia boonei is used folklorically for the management of the multitude of conditions including cataract, which accounts for 50% of cases of blindness in the region. The current study set out to probe the traditional use of the aqueous extract of Alstonia boonei stem bark (ABE) as an anticataract remedy using Sprague Dawley rat models. We investigated the probable phytochemical constituents in the extract, in vitro antioxidant potential, and its in vitro aldose reductase inhibition. For the anticataract investigations, diabetic cataract was induced using galactose in 3-week-old Sprague Dawley rats, and age-related cataract was induced by the administration of sodium selenite to 10-day-old rat pups. Cataract scores in both models were determined after treatment with 30, 100, and 300 mgkg-1 doses of ABE and 10 mlkg-1 of distilled water. Lens glutathione, total lens protein, soluble lens proteins (alpha-A) crystallin, and aquaporin 0 levels in the enucleated lens homogenates were determined. Changes in lens to body weight were also determined with histopathological analysis done on the lenses in the selenite-induced cataract model. The presence of alkaloids, tannins, flavonoids, glycosides, and triterpenoids was identified in the extract. The extract inhibited aldose reductase activity with IC50 of 92.30 µgml-1. The 30, 100, and 300 mgkg-1ABE-treated rats recorded significantly (p < 0.05) reduced cataract scores indicating a delay in cataractogenesis in galactose-induced cataract and in selenite-induced cataractogenesis as well. Markers of lens transparency such as AQP0, alpha-A crystallin, and total lens proteins and lens glutathione levels were significantly (p < 0.05) preserved. In conclusion, this study establishes the anticataract potential of the aqueous stem bark extract of Alstonia boonei in Sprague Dawley rat models.

Diversity and antibiograms of bacteria isolated from cutaneous leishmaniasis wounds in the Nkwanta South District of Ghana.

Leishmaniasis is a vector-borne disease caused by an intracellular protozoan parasite. The presence of secondary bacterial infections in cutaneous leishmaniasis wounds exacerbate lesion development and could lead to delay in the healing process. This study sought to determine the resistance patterns of bacteria co-infecting cutaneous leishmaniasis wounds from selected communities in the Nkwanta district. Various bacteria were isolated and characterized from exudates obtained from wound swabs collected with sterile cotton tipped applicators. Confirmation of bacterial identity was done using the analytical profile index and the matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time of flight mass spectrometry. Antibiotic susceptibility tests were performed using agar disc diffusion method according to the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute breakpoint values. A total of eleven (11) secondary bacterial species (spp) were isolated from the 33 wound samples that tested positive for Leishmania kinetoplast DNA, among which Staphylococcus aureus was the most predominant (31%). The pathogenic bacteria that colonized the wounds included Bacillus subtilis (23.8%), Pantoea species (11.9%), Klebsiella pneumoniea (7.1%), Enterobacter cloacae (7.1%), Aeromonas species (4.8%), Serratia marcescens (4.8%), Serratia liquefacien (2.4%), Serratia plymutheca (2.4%), Providencia rettgeri (2.4%) and Cronobacter species (2.4%). Most of the isolates were resistant to beta-lactam antibiotics and the third-generation cephalosporin. Notably, 84.6% of the S. aureus isolates were methicillin and ciprofloxacin resistant whilst 92.3% were resistant to ampicillin. About sixty-nine percent (69.2%) showed intermediate susceptibility to Erythromycin. Additionally, S. plymutheca was resistant to all the test antibiotics. This study suggests colonization of cutaneous leishmaniasis wounds with varied bacterial species that are mostly resistant to beta-lactam group of antibiotics.

Multi-drug resistant bacteria isolates from lymphatic filariasis patients in the Ahanta West District, Ghana.

BACKGROUND: Antimicrobial resistance is associated with increased morbidity in secondary infections and is a global threat owning to the ubiquitous nature of resistance genes in the environment. Recent estimate put the deaths associated with bacterial antimicrobial resistance in 2019 at 4.95 million worldwide. Lymphatic filariasis (LF), a Neglected Tropical Disease (NTD), is associated with the poor living in the tropical regions of the world. LF patients are prone to developing acute dermatolymphangioadenitis (ADLA), a condition that puts them at risk of developing secondary bacterial infections due to skin peeling. ADLA particularly worsens the prognosis of patients leading to usage of antibiotics as a therapeutic intervention. This may result in inappropriate usage of antibiotics due to self-medication and non-compliance; exacerbating antimicrobial resistance in LF patients. In this perspective, we assessed the possibilities of antimicrobial resistance in LF patients. We focused on antibiotic usage, antibiotic resistance in Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolates and looked at genes (mecA and Extended-spectrum beta-lactamase [blaCTX-M, blaSHV and blaTEM]) coding for resistance in multi-drug resistant (MDR) bacterial isolates. RESULTS: Of the sixty (60) participants, fifty-four (n = 54, 90%) were within 31-60 years of age, twenty (n = 20, 33.33%) were unemployed and thirty-eight (n = 38, 50.67%) had wounds aged (in months) seven (7) months and above. Amoxicillin (54%) and chloramphenicol (22%) were the most frequently used antibiotics for self-medication. Staphylococcus aureus isolates (n = 26) were mostly resistant to penicillin (n = 23, 88.46%) and least resistant to erythromycin (n = 2, 7.69%). Escherichia coli isolates (n = 5) were resistant to tetracycline (n = 5, 100%) and ampicillin (n = 5, 100%) but were sensitive to meropenem (n = 5, 100%). Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolates (n = 8) were most resistant to meropenem (n = 3, 37.50%) and to a lesser ciprofloxacin (n = 2, 25%), gentamicin (n = 2, 25%) and ceftazidime (n = 2, 25%). Multi-drug resistant methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), cephalosporin resistant Escherichia coli. and carbapenem resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa were four (n = 4, 15.38%), two (n = 2, 40%) and two (n = 2, 25%) respectively. ESBL (blaCTX-M) and mecA genes were implicated in the resistance mechanism of Escherichia coli and MRSA, respectively. CONCLUSION: The findings show presence of MDR isolates from LF patients presenting with chronic wounds; thus, the need to prioritize resistance of MDR bacteria into treatment strategies optimizing morbidity management protocols. This could guide antibiotic selection for treating LF patients presenting with ADLA.

Wound Healing Properties and Antimicrobial Effects of Parkia clappertoniana Keay Fruit Husk Extract in a Rat Excisional Wound Model.

Background: Parkia clappertoniana Keay (Family: Fabaceae) (P. clappertoniana) fruit husk is commonly used in northern Ghana for wound treatment. However, this folk claim remains to be confirmed scientifically. Objective: This study investigated wound healing and antimicrobial effects of P. clappertoniana fruit husk extract (PCFHE) by using excision wound model in rats. Materials and Methods: After preparation and phytochemical analysis of PCFHE, it was reconstituted in purified water and emulsifying ointment yielding a wound healing formula (0.3, 1, and 3%). Excision wounds were established in healthy male Sprague-Dawley rats (aged 8-10 weeks; weighing 150-200 g). Rats were randomly assigned into six groups (model, 1% silver sulfadiazine [SSD], vehicle, and PCFHE [0.3, 1, and 3%, respectively]) and topically treated daily until complete wound healing. The endpoints (period of epithelialization, wound contraction, collagen content, erythema index, oedema index, inflammatory cell infiltration, and antimicrobial activity) were assessed for all groups. Minimum fungicidal concentration (MFC), minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC), and time-kill were assessed. Results: Quercetin and catechin were detected in PCFHE. Compared to model and vehicle groups, PCFHE-treatment groups improved wound healing and antimicrobial (MBC, MFC, and MIC) endpoints. PCFHE demonstrated bacteriostatic and fungicidal effects against identified wound contaminants (Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Escherichia coli, and Candida albicans). Conclusion: P. clappertoniana fruit husk possesses wound healing and antimicrobial effects in excisional wounds in rats that confirms its folk use, and the reported pharmacological properties of PCFHE are attributable to its quercetin and catechin phyto-constituents.

Antimicrobial Potential of Extract from a Pseudomonas aeruginosa Isolate.

Microorganisms are one of the main sources of antimicrobial agents and over 50% of antibiotics currently used in hospitals are metabolites from microbes. This study aimed to isolate microorganisms from the Dompoase landfill site, Kwame Nkrumah University Physics Garden, Kosiko River, and Ada Foah seashore of Ghana and screen their metabolites for antimicrobial activity. Forty-eight (48) microorganisms were isolated and their metabolites were screened against Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Vibrio cholerae, Salmonella typhi, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Streptococcus pyogenes, Proteus mirabilis, and Candida albicans using the agar well diffusion method. Ten (10) of the isolates exhibited antimicrobial activity. Isolate DO5, identified as P. aeruginosa isolate, from the Dompoase landfill site was selected for fermentation because it exhibited the highest activity against all the test organisms. DO5 produced optimum antimicrobial activity when fermented for 11 days at 30°C. In the agar diffusion method, the extract of isolate DO5 recorded zones of inhibition ranging between 11.67 ± 0.23 and 21.50 ± 0.71 mm. The MIC and MBC recorded for the DO5 extract ranged from 3.13-25.0 mg/mL and from 6.25-50.0 mg/mL, respectively. Column chromatography analysis yielded eight (8) subfractions from the DO5 extract. IR analysis revealed the presence of functional groups such as alcohols, esters, and hydrocarbons in the fractions. GC-MS analysis identified nine compounds that have been reported to have antimicrobial agents. The DO5 metabolites stand the chance to be developed into potent antibiotics for infection treatment.

Evaluation of Dermal Toxicity and Wound Healing Activity of Cnestis ferruginea Vahl ex DC.

Cnestisferruginea is a tropical plant, which is traditionally used in the treatment and management of various conditions including skin infections and wounds. The aim of this study was to investigate the dermal toxicity and wound healing potential of C. ferruginea. Ten millimeter full-thickness mucosal wounds were created on the dorsal midportion of the Sprague Dawley rats. Wounds were treated with 10, 5, and 2.5% w/w aqueous creams, prepared from the methanol extract of the root bark of C. ferruginea (CFM). The wound tissues were harvested on day 21 for histology studies. Compared with the untreated group, 10, 5, and 2.5% w/w CFM-treated wounds significantly reduced the wound size over the study period (P < 0.0001). Tissue histology revealed a healed wound with well-regenerated collagen and skin appendages with no pus cells. A skin irritation test was conducted on CFM, as well as the dermal toxicity of CFM was determined in the repeated dose and acute dermal toxicity bioassays. These tests revealed that CFM showed no toxic effect on the skin and showed that CFM was not a skin irritant. C. ferruginea exhibited wound healing activity, which gives credence to its folkloric use.

Regulation of Nrf2 and NF-κB activities may contribute to the anti-inflammatory mechanism of xylopic acid.

Xylopic acid (XA) is a kaurene diterpene which naturally exists in African plants such as Xylopia aethiopica. It has been established to exhibit acute and chronic anti-inflammatory activities from our earlier studies. This current work sets out to shed light on the potential molecular target(s) of xylopic acid. Selection of investigated targets (NF-κB, Nrf2 and PTP1B) was based on an unbiased approach, using the SPiDER in silico prediction tool, and a candidate approach, examining well-known anti-inflammatory targets. Reporter gene assays were used to test for altered NF-κB and Nrf2 activities in transfected HEK or CHO cells, respectively, and immunoblot and flow cytometric analyses examined protein expression of the Nrf2/NF-kB target genes HO-1 and VCAM-1 in HUVEC. An effect of XA on PTP1B activity assay was studied using an in vitro enzyme assay with recombinant human enzyme and pNPP as substrate as well as by looking at insulin receptor phosphorylation in HepG2 cells. XA at 30 µM significantly (p < 0.001) inhibited the NF-κB-dependent reporter gene expression and enhanced activation of Nrf2 in a concentration-dependent manner when compared to the control. XA also marginally increased HO-1 protein expression levels while expression of VCAM-1 was reduced to 70% in XA-treated endothelial cells. However, XA did not show any sign of inhibition of PTP1B or a related phosphatase. Our findings suggest that the anti-inflammatory mechanism of XA entails the inhibitory effect on NF-κB and an increased activity of Nrf2, accompanied by increased expression of HO-1 and reduced expression of VCAM-1.

Antimicrobial properties of Cnestis ferruginea Vahl ex DC.

Scientific research into developing new antimicrobials from plants continues to be an interesting area for many scientists. This is because the resistance of microorganisms to anti-infective agents has affected a wide range of conditions, some of which are life-threatening. This study aimed to investigate the antimicrobial properties of Cnestis ferruginea (CF). Powdered roots of Cnestis ferruginea were extracted with petroleum ether (CFP), ethyl acetate (CFE) and methanol (CFM). The antimicrobial and microbial resistance modifying activity profiles of the extracts were studied against Escherichia coli ATCC 25922, Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 4853, Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923, clinical strains of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pyogenes, Klebsiella pneumonia, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Proteus mirabilis and Candida albicans. CFP and CFE showed no activity against the test organisms. CFM had mean zones of growth inhibition in the range of 11.0 ± 0.5 to 22.17 ± 0.24 mm against the test organisms. The MIC of CFM was within the range of 0.31 and 5.0 mg/mL, with MBC/MFC range of 2.5-20.0 mg/mL. The time-kill kinetics studies showed CFM is a static agent. At sub-inhibitory concentrations, CFM was able to increase the susceptibility of the test organisms to standard antibiotics from the range of 1-8 folds. CFM reduced the formation of biofilms from 100% to 56.59%, 62.33%, 65.89% and 71.88% against K. pneumonia, S. aureus, E. coli and P. aeruginosa, respectively. The findings of this study show that C. ferruginea possesses antimicrobial activity and therefore gives credence to its folkloric use.

Prevalence and Phenotypic and Genotypic Resistance Mechanisms of Multidrug-Resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa Strains Isolated from Clinical, Environmental, and Poultry Litter Samples from the Ashanti Region of Ghana.

Background: Antibiotic resistance in bacteria is a major global health challenge. Reports on the prevalence of multidrug-resistant P. aeruginosa, a common pathogenic bacterium implicated in nosocomial infections and poultry diseases, are limited in Ghana. This study therefore sought to determine the prevalence of P. aeruginosa from hospitals, poultry farms, and environmental samples from the Ashanti region of Ghana. Methodology. Stool, urine, and blood samples from 364 patients from two hospitals in the Ashanti region of Ghana were randomly sampled. P. aeruginosa was isolated and confirmed using routine selective media and PCR-based oprL gene amplification. The Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion method employing EUCAST breakpoint values was used to identify multidrug-resistant strains. The occurrence of common antibiotic inactivating enzymes and resistance encoding genes and the assessment of strain efflux capacity were investigated with double disc synergy test (DDST), imipenem-EDTA synergy test, phenylboronic acid test, D-test, routine PCR, and ethidium bromide agar-cartwheel method. Results: A total of 87 (9.7%, n = 87/900) P. aeruginosa isolates were confirmed from the samples. 75% (n = 65/87) were resistant to more than one group of antipseudomonal agents, while 43.6% (n = 38/87) were multidrug-resistant (MDR). High prevalence of extended spectrum ß-lactamases (84.2%), metallo-ß-lactamases (34.1%), and AmpC inducible cephalosporinases (50%) was observed in the MDR strains. About 57.8% of the MDR strains showed moderate to very high efflux capacity. Class 1 integrons were detected in 89.4% of the MDR isolates but ß-lactamase encoding genes (bla SHV , bla TEM , bla CTX-M , bla VIM , and bla IMP ) were not detected. Conclusion: Surveillance of antibiotic-resistant strains of bacteria should be routinely conducted in clinical and veterinary practice in Ghana to inform selection of antibiotics for therapeutic use.

In Vitro Anthelmintic Activity of Ethanol Stem Bark Extract of Albizia ferruginea (Guill. & Perr.) Benth.

Albizia ferruginea (Guill. & Perr.) Benth bark is used in the traditional medicine as a vermifuge. This study sought to determine the anthelmintic activity of the stem bark extract of Albizia ferruginea. The powdered A. ferruginea stem bark was extracted with ethanol. Phytochemical screening was carried out on A. ferruginea ethanol extract (AFE) and then screened for its anthelmintic property against Pheretima posthuma and Haemonchus contortus using the adult motility assay. The effect of AFE and its fractions on the anthelminthic activity of mebendazole and albendazole were also determined using the adult worm (P. posthuma) motility assay. AFE showed a dose-dependent anthelmintic activity against P. posthuma and H. contortus. The least concentration of AFE (0.5 mg/mL) paralyzed and killed P. posthuma within 272.50 ± 12.42 min and 354.50 ± 5.06 min of exposure, respectively. AFE at the least test concentration (0.14 mg/mL) caused paralysis and induced death of H. contortus, after at 63.50 ± 2.98 and 254.96 ± 2.44 min of exposure, respectively. AFE extract at 0.25 and 0.125 mg/mL increased the paralytic and helminthicidal activities of albendazole. The paralytic and helminthicidal activities of mebendazole were reduced when combined with AFE (0.25 and 0.125 mg/mL). Among the three fractions obtained from AFE, the methanol fraction showed the highest anthelmintic activity. The methanol fraction at 0.5 mg/mL caused paralysis after 69.90 ± 0.15 min and death of worm after 92.53 ± 0.74 min of exposure. The petroleum ether and ethyl acetate fractions showed relatively low anthelmintic activity. Phytochemical screening of AFE revealed the presence of tannins, saponins, glycosides, alkaloids, and coumarins. The results from this study show that A. ferruginea possesses anthelmintic activity which gives credence to its folkloric use.

Anti-trypanosomal and anthelminthic properties of ethanol and aqueous extracts of Tetrapleura tetraptera Taub.

Trypanosomosis and helminthosis, considered as part of neglected tropical diseases, are parasitic infections of public health importance, especially in Africa. Medicinal plants have been used in most parts of Africa, to treat these parasitic infections. The study aims to determine the anti-trypanosomal and anthelminthic properties of Tetrapleura tetraptera (fruit and stembark). The aqueous extracts of T. tetraptera fruit (TTFaq) and stembark (TTSaq), as well as ethanol extracts of T. tetraptera fruit (TTFe) and stembark (TTSe), were screened for their in vitro anti-trypanosomal and anthelminthic activities against T. b. brucei and Pheretima posthuma worms, respectively. Preliminary phytochemical screening of all extracts and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis of most active extracts were conducted. TTFaq exhibited anti-trypanosomal activity with IC50 of 18.18 µg/mL. TTSe and TTFe had moderate anti-trypanosomal activity with IC50 of 34.76 and 34.84 µg/mL, respectively. TTSaq had relatively low activity against the parasite with IC50 of 55.03 µg/mL. The SI of T. tetraptera extracts was between the range of 0.14-2.09. TTFaq showed dose-dependent activity causing paralysis and death of the adult worms at all concentrations. At the least concentration of 0.625 mg/mL, TTFaq induced paralysis and death after 101.88 ± 0.8 and 242.64 ± 0.38 min of exposure, respectively compared with the negative control (p < 0.0001). TTFe, TTSe and TTSaq caused paralysis of worms after 318.32 ± 0.74, 422.5 ± 0.72, 422.20 ± 0.55 min of exposure at minimum concentrations of 2.5, 10 and 5 mg/mL, respectively (p < 0.0001). However, no death was observed in worms treated with TTFe, TTSe and TTSaq at all test concentrations. In the presence of sub-minimal inhibitory concentration of the extracts, TTFaq potentiated the anthelminthic activity of albendazole whiles TTFe, TTSaq and TTSe inhibited the activity of albendazole. Phytochemical screening revealed the presence of saponins, triterpenoids, reducing sugars, flavonoids (absent in TTFe), steroids (absent in TTFaq) and tannins (absent in TTSe and TTFe) in the extracts. GC-MS revealed the presence of 9-octadecenamide and betulic acid in TTFaq. Hence, there was evidence provided here that Tetrapleura tetraptera may be effective. This gives credence to their folkloric use. However, further study might be necessary to ascertain safety use in both humans and animals.

Ethnomedicinal survey and mutagenic studies of plants used in Accra metropolis, Ghana.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Majority of people living in Ghana and many other developing countries rely on traditional medicinal plants for their primary healthcare. These plants are used either alone or in combination to manage a wide range of ailments. However, most of these plants have not been investigated for their mutagenic effects. AIM OF THE STUDY: This study, therefore aimed at evaluating the mutagenic activity of the most frequently used medicinal plants amongst Ghanaians living within the Accra metropolis, Ghana. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Validated questionnaires were administered to 53 herbalists and herbal medicines dealers in the Makola, Madina and Nima communities. Plants that were identified as being frequently used were investigated for their mutagenicity using the Ames test. RESULTS: A total of 110 medicinal plants belonging to 53 families were identified as most frequently used plants in the study sites. These are used to treat various ailments including gastric ulcer, fever, malaria, male impotence, diabetes, typhoid, high blood pressure and candidiasis. Thirteen samples (52%) showed moderate to high mutagenicity in the TA 100 bacterial strain before and after metabolism with rat liver enzyme. CONCLUSIONS: The study showed that over half of the frequently used medicinal plants showed moderate to high mutagenicity before and after metabolism at the concentration of a 100 µg/mL. This may have implications for the safety of those who use them to manage diseases. These findings will suggest the need for an in-depth study of the mutagenic potentials of plants commonly used by indigenous people and more especially for those exhibiting high mutagenicity in this study.

Effect of Phenotypic Screening of Extracts and Fractions of Erythrophleum ivorense Leaf and Stem Bark on Immature and Adult Stages of Schistosoma mansoni.

Schistosomiasis is a disease caused by a flatworm parasite that infects people in tropical and subtropical regions of Sub-Saharan Africa, South America, China, and Southeast Asia. The reliance on just one drug for current treatment emphasizes the need for new chemotherapeutic strategies. The aim of this study was to determine the phenotypic effects of extracts and fractions of leaf and stem bark of Erythrophleum ivorense (family Euphorbiaceae), a tree that grows in tropical parts of Africa, on two developmental stages of Schistosoma mansoni, namely, postinfective larvae (schistosomula or somules) and adults. Methanol leaf and stem bark extracts of E. ivorense were successively fractionated with acetone, petroleum ether, ethyl acetate, and methanol. These fractions were then incubated with somules at 0.3125 to 100 µg/mL and with adults at 1.25 µg/mL. The acetone fractions of both the methanol leaf and bark of E. ivorense were most active against the somules whereas the petroleum ether fractions showed least activity. For adult parasites, the acetone fraction of methanol bark extract also elicited phenotypic changes. The data arising provide the first step in the discovery of new treatments for an endemic infectious disease using locally sourced African medicinal plants.

An increased autophagic flux contributes to the anti-inflammatory potential of urolithin A in macrophages.

BACKGROUND: An extract of Phyllanthus muellerianus and its constituent geraniin have been reported to exert anti-inflammatory activity in vivo. However, orally consumed geraniin, an ellagitannin, shows low bioavailability and undergoes metabolization to urolithins by gut microbiota. This study aimed at comparing geraniin and urolithin A with respect to inhibition of M1 (LPS) polarization of murine J774.1 macrophages and shedding more light on possible underlying mechanisms. METHODS: Photometric, fluorimetric as well as luminescence-based assays monitored production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and nitric oxide (NO), cell viability or reporter gene expression. Western blot analyses and confocal microscopy showed abundance and localization of target proteins, respectively. RESULTS: Urolithin A is a stronger inhibitor of M1 (LPS) macrophage polarization (production of NO, ROS and pro-inflammatory proteins) than geraniin. Urolithin A leads to an elevated autophagic flux in macrophages. Inhibition of autophagy in M1 (LPS) macrophages overcomes the suppressed nuclear translocation of p65 (NF-kB; nuclear factor kB), the reduced expression of pro-inflammatory genes as well as the diminished NO production brought about by urolithin A. The increased autophagic flux is furthermore associated with impaired Akt/mTOR (mammalian target of rapamycin) signaling in urolithin A-treated macrophages. CONCLUSIONS AND GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE: Intestinal metabolization may boost the potential health benefit of widely consumed dietary ellagitannins, as suggested by side by side comparison of geraniin and urolithin A in M1(LPS) macrophages. Increased activity of the autophagic cellular recycling machinery aids the anti-inflammatory bioactivity of urolithin A.

Antimicrobial Activities and Time-Kill Kinetics of Extracts of Selected Ghanaian Mushrooms.

The rapid rise of antimicrobial resistance is a worldwide problem. This has necessitated the need to search for new antimicrobial agents. Mushrooms are rich sources of potential antimicrobial agents. This study investigated the antimicrobial properties of methanol extracts of Trametes gibbosa, Trametes elegans, Schizophyllum commune, and Volvariella volvacea. Agar well diffusion, broth microdilution, and time-kill kinetic assays were used to determine the antimicrobial activity of the extracts against selected test organisms. Preliminary mycochemical screening revealed the presence of tannins, flavonoids, triterpenoids, anthraquinones, and alkaloids in the extracts. Methanol extracts of T. gibbosa, T. elegans, S. commune, and V. volvacea showed mean zone of growth inhibition of 10.00 ± 0.0 to 21.50 ± 0.84, 10.00 ± 0.0 to 22.00 ± 1.10, 9.00 ± 0.63 to 21.83 ± 1.17, and 12.00 ± 0.0 to 21.17 ± 1.00 mm, respectively. The minimum inhibitory concentration of methanol extracts of T. gibbosa, T. elegans, S. commune, and V. volvacea ranged from 4.0 to 20, 6.0 to 30.0, 8.0 to 10.0, and 6.0 to 20.0 mg/mL, respectively. Time-kill kinetics studies showed that the extracts possess bacteriostatic action. Methanol extracts of T. gibbosa, T. elegans, S. commune, and V. volvacea exhibited antimicrobial activity and may contain bioactive compounds which may serve as potential antibacterial and antifungal agents.

Anti-inflammatory activity of aqueous leaf extract of Phyllanthus muellerianus (Kuntze) Exell. and its major constituent, geraniin.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Phyllanthus muellerianus (Kuntze) Exell. which belongs to the Family Euphorbiaceae is a shrub widely distributed in West Africa. It is used traditionally to manage wounds and wound infections, menstrual disorders, fevers, pain and inflammation. Hence to confirm its ethnobotanical uses in managing inflammation, we investigated the anti-inflammatory properties of aqueous leaf extract of P. muellerianus (PLE) and its major isolate, geraniin in experimentally-induced inflammation in rats. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Carrageenan induced oedema and adjuvant induced arthritis models in rats were used in this study. RESULTS: In the carrageenan-induced acute inflammation, both 300mg/kg PLE-treated and 10mg/kg geraniin-treated groups significantly reduced the mean maximal swelling attained at 4h to 46.75±4.97% (p<0.01) and 61.65±6.70% (p<0.05), respectively, from the inflamed control response of 122.60±16.39%. In the adjuvant-induced chronic inflammation, both PLE-treated (100 and 300mg/kg) groups and geraniin-treated (10 and 30mg/kg) groups significantly (p<0.001) reduced the total limb swelling over 16 days in the polyarthritic phase compared to the arthritic control. These observations were supported by the radiograph records and the histological investigations of the hind limbs which showed reduced bone damage in both PLE and geraniin-treated rats. CONCLUSION: The findings may confirm the ethnobotanical use of PLE in the management of inflammatory disorders or conditions and observed anti-inflammatory property of PLE may largely be due to its major constituent, geraniin.