Evaluating the Consistency Between Conceptual Frameworks and Factors Influencing the Safe Behavior of Iranian Workers in the Petrochemical Industry: Mixed Methods Study.

BACKGROUND: Unsafe worker behavior is often identified as a major cause of dangerous incidents in the petrochemical industry. Behavioral safety models provide frameworks that may help to prevent such incidents by identifying factors promoting safe or unsafe behavior. We recently conducted a qualitative study to identify factors affecting workers' unsafe behaviors in an Iranian petrochemical company. OBJECTIVE: The aims of this study were to (1) conduct a review of the relevant research literature between the years 2000 and 2019 to identify theoretical models proposed to explain and predict safe behavior in the workplace and (2) to select the model that best reflects our qualitative findings and other evidence about the factors influencing safe behaviors among petrochemical workers. METHODS: This research used mixed methods. Initially, we conducted a qualitative study of factors that Iranian petrochemical workers believed affected their safety behavior. Four themes emerged from the semistructured interviews: (1) poor direct safety management and supervision; (2) unsafe workplace conditions; (3) workers' perceptions, skills, and training; and (4) broader organizational factors. Electronic databases, including PubMed, Embase, Scopus, Google Scholar, EBSCOhost, and Science Direct, were then searched for eligible studies on models to explain and predict safe behaviors, which were published between the years 2000 and 2019. Medical subject headings were used as the primary analytical element. Medical subject headings and subheadings were then extracted from the literature. One researcher conducted the search and 3 researchers performed screening and data extraction. Then, constructs described in each study were assessed to determine which were the most consistent with themes derived from our qualitative analysis. RESULTS: A total of 2032 publications were found using the search strategy. Of these, 142 studies were assessed and 28 studies met the inclusion criteria and were included in the review. The themes identified in the qualitative study most closely matched 3 scales included in Wu et al's model that measured safety behavior and performance, safety leadership, and safety climate in petrochemical industries. Poor direct safety management and supervision matched with safety leadership and its subscales; unsafe workplace conditions matched with safety climate and its subscales; workers' perceptions, skills, and training matched with safety performance and its subscales; and broader organizational factors matched with some subscales of the model. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first literature review to identify models intended to explain and predict safe behavior and select the model most consistent with themes elicited from a qualitative study. Our results showed that effective safety leadership and management and safety climate and culture systems are the most frequently identified factors affecting safe behaviors in the petrochemical industry. These results can further help safety researchers and professionals design effective behavior-based safety interventions, which can have a more sustainable and persistent impact on workers' safety behaviors. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Iranian Registry of Clinical Trials IRCT20170515033981N2; https://www.irct.ir/trial/26107. INTERNATIONAL REGISTERED REPORT IDENTIFIER (IRRID): RR2-10.1186/s12889-019-7126-1.

Bereaved Family Members' Views of the Value of Coronial Inquests Into Fatal Work Incidents.

Fatal work incidents result in an array of government responses, and in countries such as the United Kingdom and Australia, this may include the holding of coronial inquests. A common theme from the scant literature is that family members have a strong need to know how and why their loved one died. The inquisitorial nature of inquests suggests potential in uncovering this information, although little is known about families' experiences with these proceedings. Interviews with 40 bereaved relatives explored their views and experiences of inquests. Findings suggest that families, often frustrated with other investigative processes, want inquests to provide a better understanding of how and why the death occurred, uncover any failings/responsibilities, and thereby move closer to a sense of justice being obtained for the deceased. Families identified problems perceived to impair the process and where improvements could be made to secure a more effective and meaningful institutional response to the fatality.

Factors associated with unsafe work behaviours in an Iranian petrochemical company: perspectives of workers, supervisors, and safety managers.

BACKGROUND: The petrochemical industry is hazardous, in part because of the inherently dangerous nature of the work conducted, and incidents frequently result in significant financial and social losses. The most common immediate cause of incidents and injuries in this industry is unsafe worker behaviour. Identifying the factors encouraging unsafe work behaviours is the first step in taking action to discourage them. The aim of this study was to (a) explore workers', supervisors' and safety managers' attitudes and perceptions of safety in a petrochemical company in Iran, and (b) identify the factors that discourage safe work behaviours. METHODS: A qualitative study was conducted by applying the steps described by Graneheim and Lundman (2004). Twenty participants were recruited from an Iranian petrochemical company using a multi-stage approach, with initial purposive sampling followed by snowball sampling to enhance recruitment. Individual face-to-face and semi-structured interviews were conducted to gain an in-depth understanding of factors acting as barriers to safe behaviour. The interviews were recorded and transcribed in Persian and then translated into English. Conventional content analysis was performed. RESULTS: The main themes emerging from the interviews were: (i) poor direct safety management and supervision; (ii) unsafe workplace conditions; (iii) workers' perceptions, skills and training; and (iv) broader organisational factors. CONCLUSIONS: The findings give insights into practical organisational measures that can be implemented by management to promote workers' commitment to safety and engage in safe behaviours in their workplace. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Iranian Registry of Clinical Trials: IRCT20170515033981N2 . Retrospectively registered 19 June 2018.

Information needs of bereaved families following fatal work incidents.

The sudden and unexpected nature of fatal work incidents can leave family members with a strong need to know how and why the worker died. Forty Australian family members were interviewed to identify the information sought following fatal work incidents and explore the factors enhancing or impairing satisfaction with the account of the death. Findings demonstrated that employers tended to divert responsibility to the worker, to mask underlying systemic failures. Satisfaction was enhanced if family members believed a sense of justice was attained and formal investigations were able to expose the truth and those responsible for the death were identified.

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, Depression, and Prolonged Grief Disorder in Families Bereaved by a Traumatic Workplace Death: The Need for Satisfactory Information and Support.

The impact of traumatic workplace death on bereaved families, including their mental health and well-being, has rarely been systematically examined. This study aimed to document the rates and key correlates of probable posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), major depressive disorder (MDD), and prolonged grief disorder (PGD) in family members following a workplace injury fatality. The hidden nature of the target population necessitated outreach recruitment techniques, including the use of social media, newspaper articles, radio interviews, and contact with major family support organizations. Data were collected using a cross-sectional design and international online survey. The PCL-C (PTSD), the PHQ-8 (MDD), and PG-13 (PGD) were used to measure mental health disorders. All are well-established self-report measures with strong psychometric qualities. Participants were from Australia (62%), Canada (17%), the USA (16%), and the UK (5%). The majority were females (89.9%), reflecting the gender distribution of traumatic workplace deaths (over 90% of fatalities are male). Most were partners/spouses (38.5%) or parents (35%) and over half (64%) were next of kin to the deceased worker. Most deaths occurred in the industries that regularly account for more than 70 percent of all industrial deaths-construction, manufacturing, transport, and agriculture forestry and fishing. At a mean of 6.40 years (SD = 5.78) post-death, 61 percent of participants had probable PTSD, 44 percent had probable MDD, and 43 percent had probable PGD. Logistic regressions indicated that a longer time since the death reduced the risk of having each disorder. Being next of kin and having a self-reported mental health history increased the risk of having MDD. Of the related information and support variables, having satisfactory support from family, support from a person to help navigate the post-death formalities, and satisfactory information about the death were associated with a decreased risk of probable PTSD, MDD, and PGD, respectively. The findings highlight the potential magnitude of the problem and the need for satisfactory information and support for bereaved families.

Working Time Society consensus statements: Psychosocial stressors relevant to the health and wellbeing of night and shift workers.

This consensus report summarizes the negative impact of work-related psychosocial factors and job stressors on the health and wellbeing of shift workers. Psychosocial factors may (a) directly affect work schedules or (b) mediate or moderate relationships between work schedules, circadian factors, and health. In this paper, prominent psychosocial models (e.g. Job Strain and Effort-Reward Imbalance) are used to help assess detrimental effects, including pathophysiologic outcomes. Several studies indicate the psychosocial environment can be more problematic for shift workers compared to regular day workers. This is likely due to shift worker's experiencing greater risks of low job control, high physical work demands, lower support from supervisors, and greater levels of over-commitment. Workplace violence is another frequently encountered psychosocial stressor for shift workers more likely to be in regular contact with the general public, such as police officers, security personnel, professional drivers, and other service employees being at elevated risk. A large body of literature confirms night and irregular shift schedules increase risk for injury. Non-diurnal schedules can trigger and worsen such incidents, especially under unsafe conditions. The problem of workplace violence for shift workers, in terms of severity and consequences, is probably underestimated, especially when present among other occupational stressors. Practical considerations and recommendations for action to mitigate the detrimental effects of psychosocial stressors on night and shift workers are presented.

Working Time Society consensus statements: Evidence-based effects of shift work and non-standard working hours on workers, family and community.

Working time arrangements that require shift work or other non-standard working hours have significant potential to encroach on time that is highly valued for family, social and leisure activity. This can often result in workers experiencing poorer work-family or work-life balance. Based on an extensive literature search and expert knowledge, primary risk factors were identified including shift work; long, irregular and unpredictable working hours; and work on evenings and weekends (in combination and independent of shift work). On the other hand, flexibility, in the form of adequate worker control over work schedules, may be a protective factor. In addition, workers experiencing excessive work-life conflict are likely to reduce their working hours, reflecting a reciprocal relationship between working hours and work-life balance. Workers' families are also affected by shift work and non-standard working hours. Parents' shift work is associated with poorer emotional and developmental outcomes for their children, and to a greater likelihood of risky behavior in adolescence. Additionally, the risk of separation or divorce is increased, especially for parents working night shifts. Due to relationships such as those above, the consequences of shiftwork and non-standard working hours on family and social life are largely dependent on a complex interaction between specific work schedules, other aspects of work organization, and family and individual worker characteristics. This article provides an overview of current evidence regarding the relationships between working time arrangements and various social and family variables, and concludes with shift scheduling and intervention recommendations to improve work-life balance and social well-being.

A Cognitive Behavioural Intervention Programme to Improve Psychological Well-Being.

Psychosocial risk factors have increased in today's work environment, and they threaten work ability. Good workplace atmosphere, psychosocial support, the ability to cope with stress, and skills and knowledge are all connected to more successful coping. Faster changes in the work environment and an increased workload can lead to a chain of fatigue and illness. The aim of this study was to evaluate a cognitive behavioural intervention as an early rehabilitation strategy to improve employees' well-being, in intervention group N446 and in control group N116. The well-being measures used were the Bergen Burnout Inventory (BBI 15), Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES), and depression and stress screening questions. Data were obtained by a self-report survey at baseline and at a nine-month follow-up. Differences were analysed within and between groups. The results suggest that cognitive behavioural intervention as an early rehabilitation programme will increase employees' well-being measured by BBI 15, UWES, and depression and stress screening questions. In the intervention group, the total BBI 15 score (p < 0.01) and each of the three subdimensions of burnout (exhaustion, cynicism, and sense of inadequacy) decreased at follow-up. Mental health issues are the commonest reasons for sick leave and early retirement. We need ways to prevent these issues.

An Analysis of Factors Associated With Older Workers' Employment Participation and Preferences in Australia.

Australian government and organizational age-management policies continue to target employment participation among older workers in light of an aging population. Typically, efforts to reduce early retirement among older workers have focused on well-established factors, including the promotion of worker health, reducing injury, supporting caregivers, reducing age discrimination and enhancing skill development. This research extends on the former approach by examining established factors along with important emerging factors, namely work-life conflict, work centrality and person-job fit. Additionally, the research analyses the effects of gender and financial pressure on older workers' employment participation and preferences. Logistic regression analysis of cross-sectional survey data involving 1,504 Australians aged 45-65, revealed that two established factors, physical health and caregiving, and all three emerging factors were associated with employment participation and preferences to be employed. However, important variations on the basis of gender and financial pressure were also identified. Caregiving was more strongly associated with the preference to remain employed for men (OR = 0.2.54, p < 0.01) than women (OR = 1.03, ns) and person-job fit was more strongly associated with the preference to remain employed for women (OR = 1.64, p < 0.001) than men (OR = 0.91, ns). Work-life conflict was more strongly associated with the preference to leave employment for those reporting limited financial pressure (OR = 0.60, p < 0.001) compared to those in poorer financial circumstances (OR = 0.87, ns). These findings suggest that organizational age management policies should focus on both established and emerging factors, particularly the provision of flexible working conditions and improving the psychosocial work environment. However, such efforts should carefully consider the different needs of men and women, and those under varying levels of financial stress. With respect to government policy to promote employment participation, the findings support a stronger focus on improving physical and psychosocial work conditions rather than increasing the pension eligibility age. This may require further collaboration between government and employers.

Which resources moderate the effects of demanding work schedules on nurses working in residential elder care? A longitudinal study.

BACKGROUND: Shiftwork is a major job demand for nurses and has been related to various negative consequences. Research suggests that personal and job resources moderate the impact of work schedules on stress, health and well-being. OBJECTIVES: This longitudinal study examined whether the interactions of personal and job resources with work schedule demands predicted work engagement and emotional exhaustion in nursing. DESIGN: This longitudinal study included two waves of data collection with a one year follow-up using self-report questionnaires among 247 nurses working shifts or irregular working hours in residential care for the elderly in the Netherlands. METHODS: Moderated structural equation modelling was conducted to examine the interactions between personal and job resources and work schedule demands. Two work schedule demands were assessed: type of work schedule (demanding vs. less demanding) and average weekly working hours. Two personal resources, active coping and healthy lifestyle, and two job resources, work schedule control and the work schedule fit with nurses' private life, were assessed. RESULTS: Results showed that the work schedule fit with nurses' private life buffered the relationship between work schedule demands and emotional exhaustion one year later. Furthermore, the work schedule fit with nurses' private life increased work engagement one year later when work schedule demands were high. Work schedule control strengthened the positive relationship between work schedule demands and emotional exhaustion one year later. The personal resources, active coping and healthy lifestyle were no moderators in this model. CONCLUSION: Nurses suffer less from decreasing work engagement and emotional exhaustion due to work schedule demands when their work schedules fit with their private lives. Work schedule control did not buffer, but strengthened the positive relationship between weekly working hours and emotional exhaustion one year later. Job resources appeared to be more important for nurses' well-being than personal resources. These findings highlight the importance of the fit of a work schedule with nurse's private life, if the work schedule is demanding.

Bereaved families and the coronial response to traumatic workplace fatalities: Organizational perspectives.

Work remains a significant source of illness, injury, and death in developed countries. In Australia, for example, over 2,000 people die from work-related causes each year, with heavy social, economic, and personal costs (Safe Work Australia, 2013a ). Most die as a result of work-related disease. However, many die from trauma. In 2012, 223 workers were fatally injured in Australia and in the United States the figure was 4,383 (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2014 ; Safe Work Australia, 2013b ). Apart from the immediate tragedy of each worker's death, these deaths affect the victim's immediate family, wider family, friends, and co-workers. It has been estimated that, on average, every death has an impact on at least 20 other people (Dyregrov, Nordanger, & Dyregrov, 2003 ), especially when the deceased had several families, which is an increasingly common phenomenon (OECD, 2014 ). Little is known, however, about how regulatory responses following a traumatic workplace fatality meet the needs of surviving families. With a focus on the coronial investigation, this article provides information about the regulatory responses to a traumatic workplace fatality and examines how various organizations involved in the coronial process following the death viewed its ability to accommodate the needs and wishes of surviving families.

Matching Work Capacity and Job Demands: Toward an Enhanced Measure of Work Ability.

OBJECTIVE: The Work Ability Index (WAI), the dominant measure of work ability, provides little information for targeting workplace interventions. There are benefits of developing new measures that focus on self-rated capacity to meet job demands rather than on health subscales of the WAI. METHODS: Structural equation modeling with cross-sectional data from 186 underground coal miners aged 18 to 64 years was used to model multivariate relationships between the WAI subscales, worker autonomy, and relationships with management. RESULTS: The results show differential associations between workplace factors and the WAI subscales, particularly self-rated capacity, highlighting potential intervention avenues not identifiable using traditional composite WAI scoring. CONCLUSIONS: Focusing on self-rated work ability could be beneficial in clinical settings, provided measures are enhanced to capture a sufficient array of job demands.

Administering the cost of death: organisational perspectives on workers' compensation and common law claims following traumatic death at work in Australia.

Quite apart from its devastating human and psychological effects, the death of a worker can have significant, life-changing effects on their families. For many affected families, workers' compensation entitlements represent the primary financial safeguard. Where the worker was self-employed, the family will generally be excluded from this remedy and have to take the more problematic option of claiming damages at common law. Despite the centrality of workers' compensation, little attention has been given to how effectively workers' compensation agencies address the needs of bereaved families or the views of other organisations involved, such as safety inspectors, unions, employers and victim advocates. Based on interviews with forty eight organisational representatives in five Australian states, this study examines how workers' compensation regimes deal with work-related death from the perspective of those organisations involved directly or indirectly in the process. The study highlighted a number of problems, including the exclusion of self-employed workers and dealing with 'mixed families'.

Traumatic death at work: consequences for surviving families.

Research and policy on occupational health and safety have understandably focused on workers as the direct victims of workplace hazards. However, serious illness, injury, or death at work also has cascading psychological, social, and economic effects on victims' families and close friends. These effects have been neglected by researchers and policymakers. The number of persons immediately affected by workplace death is significant, even in rich countries with relatively low rates of workplace fatality. Every year, more than 5,000 family members and close friends of Australian workers become survivors of traumatic work-related death (TWD). This study investigated the health, social, and financial consequences of TWD on surviving families. In-depth exploratory interviews were conducted with seven family members who had experienced TWD from one to 20 years before the interviews, with an average of three years. All reported serious health, social, and financial consequences, including prolonged grief and unresolved loss, physical health problems, family disruption and behavioral effects on children, immediate financial difficulties, and disturbance of longer-term commitments such as retirement planning. Recommendations for policy development and improved practice are proposed to minimize the trauma and suffering experienced by families, mitigate consequences, and improve outcomes following a TWD.

Core self-evaluation as a predictor of strength training adoption in older adults.

OBJECTIVE: Progressive resistance training (PRT) counteracts sarcopenia and has been demonstrated to improve physical function and quality of life in older adults. Despite the clear benefits of PRT, participation remains low. The core self-evaluation (CSE) construct is theoretically antecedent to four personality traits: locus of control, self-esteem, neuroticism (emotional stability), and generalized self-efficacy. We have examined the association of CSE with exercise adoption among older adults invited to participate in a PRT trial. We hypothesized that CSE would positively predict adoption of PRT. STUDY DESIGN: All residents of two retirement communities were invited to complete questionnaires with items on demographics, physical activity, CSE, and general health. Following completion of questionnaires, residents were invited to take part in an on-site, 10-week randomized controlled trial of a PRT-based exercise trial. RESULTS: Thirty-eight of 358 residents (63.2% women; 76.6±6.1 year; range 58-92) enrolled and 118 residents completed the questionnaires. Multiple regression analysis predicting PRT adoption indicated that the demographic variables accounted for 38% of the variance. Inclusion of CSE (ß=.405) accounted for an additional 10% of the variance in PRT adoption. CONCLUSION: CSE was predictive of PRT adoption in this cohort, adding significantly to the predictive efficacy of known demographic predictors. This is the first study to show that CSE may influence adoption of PRT in any cohort.

Walking to wellness in an ageing sedentary university community: design, method and protocol.

BACKGROUND: Older workers are less physically active and have a higher rate and cost of injury than younger workers and so have reduced work-ability. Concurrently, sedentary behaviour in the workplace, in transport and in the home is increasing and has harmful health effects. Walking is a familiar, convenient, and free form of health-enhancing physical activity that can be integrated into working life and sustained into older age however workplace walking programs targeted at older workers have not been evaluated. PURPOSE: We designed a randomised-controlled trial to evaluate the impact of a phased individually-tailored 10-week walking program on work-day steps, health status and work-ability of employees at an Australian university with an ageing sedentary workforce. METHODS: A convenience sample of 154 academic and administrative employees aged 45-70 years will be recruited and randomly allocated to either an experimental (walking) group or control (maintain usual activity) group. Participants will be provided with a pedometer and complete measures for step count, % body fat, waist circumference, blood pressure, self-reported physical activity, psychological wellbeing and work-ability, at baseline and end-intervention. 'Walkers' will select approaches tailored to their individual preference, psychological characteristics or life circumstances. Two distinct intervention phases will target adoption (weeks 2-5) and adherence (weeks 7-12) using 'Stages of Behaviour Change' principles. An ANOVA will test for effect of treatment on outcome with the baseline value entered as a covariate. DISCUSSION: This study will test whether tailoring worksite walking is an effective means of promoting health-enhancing physical activity in ageing sedentary workers.

Flexible work in call centres: Working hours, work-life conflict & health.

Call-centre workers encounter major psychosocial pressures, including high work intensity and undesirable working hours. Little is known, however, about whether these pressures vary with employment status and how they affect work-life conflict and health. Questionnaire data were collected from 179 telephone operators in Sydney, Australia, of whom 124 (69.3%) were female and 54 (30.2%) were male. Ninety-three (52%) were permanent full-time workers, 37 (20.7%) were permanent part-time, and 49 (27.4%) were casual employees. Hypothesised structural relationships between employment status, working hours and work organisation, work-life conflict and health were tested using partial least squares modelling in PLS (Chin, 1998). The final model demonstrated satisfactory fit. It supported important elements of the hypothesised structure, although four of the proposed paths failed to reach significance and the fit was enhanced by adding a path. The final model indicated that casual workers reported more variable working hours which were relatively weakly associated with greater dissatisfaction with hours. The interaction of schedule control and variability of hours also predicted dissatisfaction with hours. Conversely, permanent workers reported greater work intensity, which was associated with both lower work schedule control and greater work-life conflict. Greater work-life conflict was associated with more fatigue and psychological symptoms. Labour market factors and the undesirability of longer hours in a stressful, high-intensity work environment appear to have contributed to the results.

Precarious employment, working hours, work-life conflict and health in hotel work.

Precarious or temporary work is associated with adverse outcomes including low control over working hours, work-life conflict and stress. The rise in precarious employment is most marked in the service sector but little research has been done on its health effects in this sector. This study compares permanent and temporary workers in the hotel industry, where working hours are highly variable. Survey data from 150 workers from eight 3-Star hotels in urban and regional areas around Sydney were analyzed. Forty-five per cent were male and 52 per cent were female. Fifty four per cent were permanent full-time and 46 per cent were temporary workers. The effects of employment status on perceived job security, control over working hours, and work-life conflict are investigated using PLS-Graph 3.0. The effects of control over working hours, on work-life conflict and subsequent health outcomes are also explored. Temporary workers perceived themselves as less in control of their working hours, than permanent workers (ß = .27). However, they also reported lower levels of work intensity (ß = .25) and working hours (ß = .38). The effects of low hours control (ß = .20), work intensity (ß = .29), and excessive hours (ß = .39) on work-life conflict (r² = .50), and subsequent health effects (r² = .30), are illustrated in the final structural equation model.

Time to call it quits? The safety and health of older workers.

The workforces of many countries are aging, creating pressure for older workers to retire later despite greater vulnerability to various occupational safety and health (OSH) risks. Some specific risks to older workers arise from age-related physical or psychological changes, while others reflect exposures to poor work organization or employment conditions. This article reviews evidence on the nature of the OSH risks faced by older workers, focusing on work ability, contingent work, and working hours. Work ability, the capacity to meet the physical, mental, and social demands of a job, has been linked to positive health outcomes for older workers. However, work characteristics seem to be more critical than workers' individual capacities. Contingent work is generally associated with poorer OSH outcomes, and older workers are more likely to be contingent, with special implications for their safety and health. There has been limited research on age and working hours, but risks for many physical and mental health problems are known to increase with shift work experience, and physiological and psychosocial changes associated with age may also increase injury risks. The authors discuss organizational practices and regulatory policies to protect and enhance the OSH of older workers.

Morningness or morning affect? A short composite scale of morningness.

The Composite Scale of Morningness (CSM) is a widely used measure of behavioral temporal preference, and it is highly reliable across cultures. There are several competing models concerning its factor structure. We used confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to replicate the two-and three-factor models, and, in addition, we examined the utility of the four-item morning affect scale as a proxy for the full CSM. We tested these models in a large student sample (N=1396). The chi-square result for the two- and three-factor models indicated they did not adequately fit the data, and the modification indices suggested some items could be correlated. Allowing these items to correlate failed to produce a non-significant chi-square result, but some improvements to the incremental fit indices and root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) were found. In particular, the three-factor model seemed satisfactory. CFA of the morning-affect scale also failed to fit the data, but the incremental fit indices and RMSEA were strong. For each of these three models, there was no significant difference between the invariant (no sex difference) and variant (sex difference) models. However, in each model, a critical ratio difference was found on the standardized regression weights between males and females on item 12. The morning-affect scale had high reliability (0.83) and demonstrated satisfactory construct validity against the preferences scale and time to sleep and wake. In addition, high and low morning-affect groups reported significant sleepiness differences by time of day. These results suggest the morning-affect scale may be a useful proxy for the full scale. Furthermore, the items make no reference to time-of-day and may better facilitate cross-cultural research. Studies using population-based samples are recommended to further test the efficacy of the morning-affect scale.