Association between preschooler outdoor play and home yard vegetation as measured by high resolution imagery: Findings from the PLAYCE study.

Outdoor play in the home yard is an important source of physical activity for many preschoolers. This study investigated if home yard size and vegetation are related to preschooler outdoor play time. High-resolution remotely sensed data were used to distinguish between types of vegetation coverage in the home yard. Shrub and tree cover, and yard size, were positively associated with outdoor play. Following stratification by socio-economic status (SES - parent education), only tree cover was positively associated with preschooler outdoor play in low SES households. All types of vegetation cover were positively associated with preschooler outdoor play in higher SES households. This study highlights the importance of larger yard sizes and higher levels of vegetation for facilitating outdoor play in preschoolers.

The built environment and child obesity: A review of Australian policies.

Child obesity is a serious public health challenge affected by both individual choice and societal and environmental factors. The main modifiable risk factors for child obesity are unhealthy eating and low levels of physical activity, both influenced by aspects of the built environment. Coordinated government policy across jurisdictions, developed using strong research evidence, can enable built environments that better support healthy lifestyles. This study reviewed current Australian and Western Australian government policies to understand if and how they address the impact of the built environment on child obesity, physical activity, sedentary behavior, and diet. Current government policy documents related to the built environment and child health were analyzed using the Comprehensive Analysis of Policy on Physical Activity framework. Ten Australian and 31 Western Australian government policy documents were identified. Most referred to the role of the built environment in supporting physical activity. Very few policies mentioned the built environment's role in reducing sedentary behaviors, supporting healthy eating, and addressing obesity. Few recognized the needs of children, and none mentioned children in policy development. Future government policy development should include the voices of children and child-specific built environment features. Inter-organizational policies with transparent implementation and evaluation plans are recommended.

Temporally stacked bee forage species distribution modeling for flower abundance mapping.

Predicting spatial distribution of flowering forage availability is critical for guiding migratory beekeeping decisions. Species distribution modelling (SDM) is widely used to predict the geographic distribution or species ranges. Stacked distributions of multiple species (S-SDM) have been used in predicting species richness or assemblages. Here, we present a method for stacking SDMs based on a temporal element, the flowering phenology of melliferous flora species. First, we used presence-only data for thirty key forage species used for honey production in Western Australia, combined with environmental variables for predicting the geographic distribution of species, using MaxEnt software. The output distribution grids were then stacked based on monthly flowering times of each species to develop grids representing the richness of flowering species by grid cell. While designed for modelling flowering forage availability for a migratory beekeeping system, the approach can be used for predicting temporal forage availability for a range of different fauna that rely on melliferous flora. •How to use temporally stacked species distribution modelling for generic distribution of flowering availability using presence-only data.•A procedure for developing flowering richness and availability grids.

The moderating role of parent perceptions in relationships between objectively measured neighbourhood environment attributes and pre-schooler's physical activity: Findings from the PLAYCE study.

We examined the moderating effects of parent perceptions of the neighbourhood environment on associations between objectively measured neighbourhood environment attributes and physical activity among pre-schoolers. The number of neighbourhood parks was positively associated with pre-schooler energetic play when parents had above average perceptions of access to services. Objectively measured street connectivity was associated with fewer minutes of energetic play when pedestrian and traffic safety was perceived to be below average by parents. Greater understanding of the role played by parents in pre-schooler's exposure to physically active supportive environments is needed to inform environmental interventions for specific age groups.

Data representing climate-induced changes in the spatial distribution of key bee forage species for southwest Western Australia.

The dataset includes (i) species occurrence points, and (ii) Species Distribution Model (SDM) outputs under current conditions and a moderate emission (RCP 6.0) climate scenario, for 30 key bee forage species in southwest Western Australia (WA). Occurrence data were obtained from open data sources and through stakeholder engagement processes. SDM outputs were predicted using the Maxent algorithm with the change in species range analysed using QGIS software. The model outputs provide insight into the potential implications of climate change on important bee forage species in southwest WA, including dominant melliferous tree and shrub species. Changes in these species are likely to have repercussions to the ecological and social systems where a facilitatory relationship exists. This dataset is important for informing conservation efforts within the southwest Australian biodiversity hotspot.

Improving the Efficiency of Geographic Target Regions for Healthcare Interventions.

Appropriate prioritisation of geographic target regions (TRs) for healthcare interventions is critical to ensure the efficient distribution of finite healthcare resources. In delineating TRs, both 'targeting efficiency', i.e., the return on intervention investment, and logistical factors, e.g., the number of TRs, are important. However, existing approaches to delineate TRs disproportionately prioritise targeting efficiency. To address this, we explored the utility of a method found within conservation planning: the software Marxan and an extension, MinPatch ('Marxan + MinPatch'), with comparison to a new method we introduce: the Spatial Targeting Algorithm (STA). Using both simulated and real-world data, we demonstrate superior performance of the STA over Marxan + MinPatch, both with respect to targeting efficiency and with respect to adequate consideration of logistical factors. For example, by design, and unlike Marxan + MinPatch, the STA allows for user-specification of a desired number of TRs. More broadly, we find that, while Marxan + MinPatch does consider logistical factors, it also suffers from several limitations, including, but not limited to, the requirement to apply two separate software tools, which is burdensome. Given these results, we suggest that the STA could reasonably be applied to help prevent inefficiencies arising due to targeting of interventions using currently available approaches.

Built Environments And Child Health in WalEs and AuStralia (BEACHES): a study protocol.

INTRODUCTION: Childhood obesity and physical inactivity are two of the most significant modifiable risk factors for the prevention of non-communicable diseases (NCDs). Yet, a third of children in Wales and Australia are overweight or obese, and only 20% of UK and Australian children are sufficiently active. The purpose of the Built Environments And Child Health in WalEs and AuStralia (BEACHES) study is to identify and understand how complex and interacting factors in the built environment influence modifiable risk factors for NCDs across childhood. METHODS AND ANALYSIS: This is an observational study using data from five established cohorts from Wales and Australia: (1) Wales Electronic Cohort for Children; (2) Millennium Cohort Study; (3) PLAY Spaces and Environments for Children's Physical Activity study; (4) The ORIGINS Project; and (5) Growing Up in Australia: the Longitudinal Study of Australian Children. The study will incorporate a comprehensive suite of longitudinal quantitative data (surveys, anthropometry, accelerometry, and Geographic Information Systems data) to understand how the built environment influences children's modifiable risk factors for NCDs (body mass index, physical activity, sedentary behaviour and diet). ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION: This study has received the following approvals: University of Western Australia Human Research Ethics Committee (2020/ET000353), Ramsay Human Research Ethics Committee (under review) and Swansea University Information Governance Review Panel (Project ID: 1001). Findings will be reported to the following: (1) funding bodies, research institutes and hospitals supporting the BEACHES project; (2) parents and children; (3) school management teams; (4) existing and new industry partner networks; (5) federal, state and local governments to inform policy; as well as (6) presented at local, national and international conferences; and (7) disseminated by peer-reviewed publications.

Is vegetation cover in key behaviour settings important for early childhood socioemotional function? A preregistered, cross-sectional study.

The environmental influences on early childhood development are understudied. The association between vegetation cover (i.e., trees, shrubs, grassed areas) in four key behaviour settings and socioemotional functioning was investigated in 1196 young children (2-5 years). Emotional difficulties were inversely associated with vegetation cover in the home yard (OR: 0.81 [0.69-0.96]) and neighbourhood (OR: 0.79 [0.67-0.94]), but not in early childhood education and care (ECEC) centre outdoor areas or the ECEC neighbourhood. The higher odds of emotional difficulties associated with lower levels of maternal education was reduced with higher percentages of home yard vegetation cover. There was no evidence of mediation of the relationship between emotional difficulties and vegetation cover by time spent playing outside the home, day or nighttime sleep duration, or physical activity. We found no associations between vegetation cover and conduct, hyperactivity and inattention, peer difficulties, or prosocial behaviours. A video abstract of this article can be viewed at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J3HeEiIjVZc.

Modelling the Relationship between Rainfall and Mental Health Using Different Spatial and Temporal Units.

Drought is thought to impact upon the mental health of agricultural communities, but studies of this relationship have reported inconsistent results. A source of inconsistency could be the aggregation of data by a single spatiotemporal unit of analysis, which induces the modifiable areal and temporal unit problems. To investigate this, mental health-related emergency department (MHED) presentations among residents of the Wheat Belt region of Western Australia, between 2002 and 2017, were examined. Average daily rainfall was used as a measure of drought. Associations between MHED presentations and rainfall were estimated based on various spatial aggregations of underlying data, at multiple temporal windows. Wide variation amongst results was observed. Despite this, two key features were found: Associations between MHED presentations and rainfall were generally positive when rainfall was measured in summer months (rate ratios up to 1.05 per 0.5 mm of daily rainfall) and generally negative when rainfall was measured in winter months (rate ratios as low as 0.96 per 0.5 mm of daily rainfall). These results demonstrate that the association between drought and mental health is quantifiable; however, the effect size is small and varies depending on the spatial and temporal arrangement of the underlying data. To improve understanding of this association, more studies should be undertaken with longer time spans and examining specific mental health outcomes, using a wide variety of spatiotemporal units.

Impact of the modifiable areal unit problem in assessing determinants of emergency department demand.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the impact of the modifiable areal unit problem (MAUP) in an investigation of factors associated with ED demand in Perth, Western Australia, in 2016. Furthermore, to advocate a means of avoiding this impact. METHODS: ED presentations were classified as: urgent medical, non-urgent medical, urgent trauma or non-urgent trauma. In each group, sex-stratified, age-adjusted multivariate associations with socio-economic status and distance to the nearest ED and general practitioner (GP) were estimated. Modelling was undertaken using different sets of spatial units: Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) Statistical Areas Level 1 (SA1s) and numerous aggregate-level zonations of SA1s (ABS SA2s and others). RESULTS: Estimates obtained using the different units often varied widely: for seven (30%) of 24 strata defined by combinations of sex, ED type and covariate, the smallest and largest effect sizes differed in terms of direction; further, for 11 (65%) of the remaining 17 strata, the largest effect size was at least twice as high as the smallest. This demonstrates the MAUP's impact and that analyses based on a single set of spatial units are unreliable. To resolve the observed variation, we highlight the SA1-level estimates. CONCLUSIONS: When formulating interventions targeting reduced ED utilisation, policy planners should be guided by evidence based on analysis of appropriate spatial units. This ideal is undermined by the widespread lack of acknowledgement of the MAUP in studies examining drivers of ED demand using spatially aggregated data. To avoid the MAUP, only estimates obtained through examining a minimal geographic unit should be relied upon.

Why bees are critical for achieving sustainable development.

Reductions in global bee populations are threatening the pollination benefits to both the planet and people. Whilst the contribution of bee pollination in promoting sustainable development goals through food security and biodiversity is widely acknowledged, a range of other benefits provided by bees has yet to be fully recognised. We explore the contributions of bees towards achieving the United Nation's Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Our insights suggest that bees potentially contribute towards 15 of the 17 SDGs and a minimum of 30 SDG targets. We identify common themes in which bees play an essential role, and suggest that improved understanding of bee contributions to sustainable development is crucial for ensuring viable bee systems.

Chimpanzees Use Least-Cost Routes to Out-of-Sight Goals.

While the ability of naturally ranging animals to recall the location of food resources and use straight-line routes between them has been demonstrated in several studies [1, 2], it is not known whether animals can use knowledge of their landscape to walk least-cost routes [3]. This ability is likely to be particularly important for animals living in highly variable energy landscapes, where movement costs are exacerbated [4, 5]. Here, we used least-cost modeling, which determines the most efficient route assuming full knowledge of the environment, to investigate whether chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) living in a rugged, montane environment walk least-cost routes to out-of-sight goals. We compared the "costs" and geometry of observed movements with predicted least-cost routes and local knowledge (agent-based) and straight-line null models. The least-cost model performed better than the local knowledge and straight-line models across all parameters, and linear mixed modeling showed a strong relationship between the cost of observed chimpanzee travel and least-cost routes. Our study provides the first example of the ability to take least-cost routes to out-of-sight goals by chimpanzees and suggests they have spatial memory of their home range landscape. This ability may be a key trait that has enabled chimpanzees to maintain their energy balance in a low-resource environment. Our findings provide a further example of how the advanced cognitive complexity of hominins may have facilitated their adaptation to a variety of environmental conditions and lead us to hypothesize that landscape complexity may play a role in shaping cognition.

Overcoming inefficiencies arising due to the impact of the modifiable areal unit problem on single-aggregation disease maps.

BACKGROUND: In disease mapping, fine-resolution spatial health data are routinely aggregated for various reasons, for example to protect privacy. Usually, such aggregation occurs only once, resulting in 'single-aggregation disease maps' whose representation of the underlying data depends on the chosen set of aggregation units. This dependence is described by the modifiable areal unit problem (MAUP). Despite an extensive literature, in practice, the MAUP is rarely acknowledged, including in disease mapping. Further, despite single-aggregation disease maps being widely relied upon to guide distribution of healthcare resources, potential inefficiencies arising due to the impact of the MAUP on such maps have not previously been investigated. RESULTS: We introduce the overlay aggregation method (OAM) for disease mapping. This method avoids dependence on any single set of aggregate-level mapping units through incorporating information from many different sets. We characterise OAM as a novel smoothing technique and show how its use results in potentially dramatic improvements in resource allocation efficiency over single-aggregation maps. We demonstrate these findings in a simulation context and through applying OAM to a real-world dataset: ischaemic stroke hospital admissions in Perth, Western Australia, in 2016. CONCLUSIONS: The ongoing, widespread lack of acknowledgement of the MAUP in disease mapping suggests that unawareness of its impact is extensive or that impact is underestimated. Routine implementation of OAM can help avoid resource allocation inefficiencies associated with this phenomenon. Our findings have immediate worldwide implications wherever single-aggregation disease maps are used to guide health policy planning and service delivery.

Chimpanzee ranging responses to fruit availability in a high-elevation environment.

Most primates experience seasonal fluctuations in the availability of food resources and face the challenge of balancing energy expenditure with energy gain during periods of resource scarcity. This is likely to be particularly challenging in rugged, montane environments, where available energy is relatively low and travel costs are high. Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) show extensive behavioral diversity across study sites. Yet, as most research has focused on low- and mid-elevation sites, little is known on how chimpanzees respond to periods of low fruit availability in harsh montane environments. We use focal follow and phenology data to investigate how fruit availability influences daily path length and monthly home range in chimpanzees living in Nyungwe National Park, a montane forest in Rwanda. Nyungwe chimpanzees decreased their daily travel distances during periods of fruit scarcity. However, this decrease in travel effort did not correspond with a decrease in foraging area. Instead, monthly homes ranges shifted location across the study period. Nyungwe chimpanzees occupy a relatively wide altitudinal range and the shifts in monthly home range location may reflect differences in the altitudinal distribution of food resources. Chimpanzee monthly diet was often dominated by one or two species and each of these species were confined to different elevation zones. One important species, Podocarpus latifolius, grew only at high elevations (2,600-2,950 m) and chimpanzees ranged at the altitudinal peak of their range for 2 consecutive months while feeding on this species. Thus, while high elevations are often thought to be harsh environments for primates, they can be an important part of a species' home range when they provide a refugium for densely distributed, important food species.

Living liveable? RESIDE's evaluation of the "Liveable Neighborhoods" planning policy on the health supportive behaviors and wellbeing of residents in Perth, Western Australia.

BACKGROUND: The RESIDential Environments (RESIDE) project is a unique longitudinal natural experiment designed to evaluate the health impacts of the "Liveable Neighbourhoods" planning policy, which was introduced by the Western Australian government to create more walkable suburbs. OBJECTIVES: To summarize the RESIDE evidence of the impact of the planning policy on a range of health-supportive behaviours and wellbeing outcomes and to assess the consistency and direction of the estimates of associations. METHODS: An audit of 26 RESIDE research papers (from 2003 to 2012) identified the number of positive associations (statistically significant and consistent with policy expectations), negative associations (statistically significant and inconsistent with policy expectations), and null findings from multiple-exposure models between objective and perceived measures of 20 policy design requirements and 13 health-supportive behaviors and wellbeing outcomes. RESULTS: In total 332 eligible estimates of associations (n = 257 objective measures and n = 75 perceived measures) were identified. Positively significant findings were detected for: 57% of walking estimates with objectively measured policy design features (negative = 3%; null = 40%) (n = 115) and 54% perceived measures (negative = 0%; null = 33%) (n = 27); 42% of sense of community estimates with objectively measured of policy design features (negative = 8%; null = 50%) (n = 12) and 61% perceived measures (negative = 8%; null = 31%) (n = 13); 39% of safety or crime-related estimates with objectively measured of policy design features (negative = 22%; null = 39%) (n = 28) and 100% perceived measures (n = 7). All (n = 4) estimates for mental health outcomes with objectively measured policy-related design features were positively significant. CONCLUSIONS: The synthesis of findings suggests that new suburban communities built in accordance with the "Liveable Neighbourhoods" policy have the potential to encourage health supportive behaviors and wellbeing outcomes including transport and recreation walking, and to create neighborhoods with a stronger sense of community where residents may feel safer.

Children's neighbourhood physical environment and early development: an individual child level linked data study.

BACKGROUND: Identification of features of the neighbourhood physical environment that have a causal association with positive child development is important for promoting long-term developmental health. Previous research on these associations have been conducted at the neighbourhood level, and do not account for individual variation in exposure to these features. METHODS: This cross-sectional study utilised de-identified linked administrative data. Neighbourhood features were measured with Geographic Information Systems and identified within a 1600 m service area around the child's home address. The study population included a random selection of 5024 Western Australian children who participated in the 2012 Australian Early Development Census (AEDC; median age 5 years, 5 months). Multi-level logistic regressions modelled the odds of children scoring in the bottom 10% on the physical, social or emotional AEDC domains as an outcome of neighbourhood features. RESULTS: After adjustment for individual and neighbourhood sociodemographic factors, lower odds of physical vulnerability were associated with increased neighbourhood residential density, presence of railway station, and higher counts of playgroups and kindergartens. Larger areas of neighbourhood home-yard space were associated with increased odds of physical and social vulnerability. Presence of high-quality green spaces was associated with lower odds of social vulnerability. Increased road traffic exposure was associated with higher odds of social and emotional vulnerability. CONCLUSIONS: The neighbourhood physical environment has a weak but significant association with early childhood development. Future research should consider the interplay between the neighbourhood environment and proximal influences, including parenting attributes and socioeconomic status, and how they influence early child development.

Shade coverage, ultraviolet radiation and children's physical activity in early childhood education and care.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the association between shade coverage in early childhood education and care (ECEC) centres and pre-school children's physical activity, outdoor time and ultraviolet radiation (UVR) exposure. METHODS: A total of 48 ECEC centres (678 children) in the Western Australian Play Spaces and Environments for Children's Physical Activity (PLAYCE) study took part. Physical activity at ECEC was measured using 7-day accelerometry. UVR exposure was measured using polysulphone film attached to children's shoulders. Educators reported time spent outdoors. The Shade Factor and remote sensing imagery captured shade coverage. RESULTS: Centre vegetation but not Shade Factor was significantly negatively associated with children's UVR exposure (p < 0.001). Higher levels of vegetation were associated with increased time outdoors, but higher levels of the Shade Factor were associated with decreased time outdoors (all p < 0.001). Neither shade measure was significantly associated with physical activity. Outdoor time moderated the relationships between shade measures, physical activity and UVR exposure. CONCLUSIONS: The provision of shade, particularly through natural forms such as tree canopy, is an important sun protection strategy and enabler of outdoor time in children attending ECEC.

Associations between the home yard and preschoolers' outdoor play and physical activity.

Objectives and importance of study: Young children's outdoor play mostly occurs within the home-yard space, yet the influence of the home yard on preschoolers' outdoor play and physical activity is poorly understood. We investigated the relationships between home-yard features and home-based outdoor play and physical activity in preschoolers (2-5 years old). STUDY TYPE: Cross-sectional observational study. METHODS: The PLAY Spaces and Environments for Children's Physical Activity (PLAYCE) study (2015-2017) included 1596 children aged 2-5 years attending early childhood education and care (ECEC) services throughout metropolitan Perth, Western Australia. In this study, a subsample of 224 parents from the PLAYCE study completed an online questionnaire about home-yard features (yard size, lawn quality, natural features, fixed and portable play equipment, and flowers and vegetables/herbs). Accelerometers measured the duration of preschoolers' moderate-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) on non-ECEC days. Parent-reported outdoor play at home, sociodemographic factors and social environment factors were collected via the PLAYCE parent survey. Multiple linear regression models were used to determine associations between home-yard features and preschoolers' outdoor play and physical activity. RESULTS: Children spent 68.9 (SD 2.2) minutes playing outdoors in the home yard per day, and 93.3 (SD 37.1) minutes in MVPA per day on non-ECEC days. After adjusting for child and parent factors, home-yard features positively associated with outdoor play included yard size, lawn quality, number of types of fixed and portable play equipment, natural features and play areas (all p ≤ 0.05). When all significant home-yard features were placed in a model, only the number of types of fixed play equipment was positively associated with minutes of outdoor play per day (ß = 5.3, p < 0.001). After adjusting for sociodemographic factors, the number of types of portable play equipment in the yard was positively associated with MVPA minutes per day (ß = 2.16, p = 0.019); however, this became nonsignificant after further adjusting for social environment factors. CONCLUSIONS: Features of the home-yard physical environment were positively associated with preschoolers' outdoor play and physical activity. Each additional type of fixed play equipment present was associated with an additional 5 minutes of outdoor play per day. These findings suggest that the home-yard space has the potential to facilitate increased outdoor play in young children. Further research is warranted to explore causal relationships between home-yard attributes and young children's outdoor play and physical activity.

Nature Play and Fundamental Movement Skills Training Programs Improve Childcare Educator Supportive Physical Activity Behavior.

BACKGROUND: Physical activity professional development programs for Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC) educators are a viable strategy for improving preschool children's physical activity behavior. This pilot intervention evaluated the effectiveness of 'nature play' and 'fundamental movement skills' (FMS) professional development programs on ECEC educators' practices on physical activity. METHODS: 148 ECEC educators from 20 ECEC centers took part in either the Nature play or FMS professional development programs in Perth, Western Australia. Educators self-reported their physical activity related practices at baseline and three months post-professional development training, using established items. Wilcoxon's test and adjusted models using Mann-Whitney U tests were run at the individual educator level to examine the change between baseline and post-professional development educator physical activity behavior. RESULTS: Educators' self-efficacy to engage children to be active significantly increased in both the Nature play and FMS professional development programs (p < 0.05). In the Nature play professional development program, ECEC educators' perceived time set aside for children to participate in nature-based play increased by 9.2%, and their perceived behavioral control for supporting general and nature-based play activities for preschool children increased by 5% and 10.3%, respectively (p < 0.05). However, these results were no longer significant after adjusting for educator socio-demographics. CONCLUSION: Both the Nature play and FMS professional development programs were effective in improving educators' self-efficacy to engage children to be active in Nature play or FMS activities. Larger pragmatic trials are required to confirm the impact of these professional development programs on educator perceived physical activity behavior.

Relationship between the neighbourhood built environment and early child development.

The relationship between features of the neighbourhood built environment and early child development was investigated using area-level data from the Australian Early Development Census. Overall 9.0% of children were developmentally vulnerable on the Physical Health and Well-being domain, 8.1% on the Social Competence domain and 8.1% on the Emotional Maturity domain. After adjustment for socio-demographic factors, Local Communities with the highest quintile of home yard space had significantly lower odds of developmental vulnerability on the Emotional Maturity domain. Residing in a Local Community with fewer main roads was associated with a decrease in the proportion of children developmentally vulnerable on the Social Competence domain. Overall, sociodemographic factors were more important than aspects of the neighbourhood physical environment for explaining variation between Local Communities in the developmental vulnerability of children.