Cytosolic localization and in vitro assembly of human de novo thymidylate synthesis complex.

De novo thymidylate synthesis is a crucial pathway for normal and cancer cells. Deoxythymidine monophosphate (dTMP) is synthesized by the combined action of three enzymes: serine hydroxymethyltransferase (SHMT1), dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR) and thymidylate synthase (TYMS), with the latter two being targets of widely used chemotherapeutics such as antifolates and 5-fluorouracil. These proteins translocate to the nucleus after SUMOylation and are suggested to assemble in this compartment into the thymidylate synthesis complex. We report the intracellular dynamics of the complex in cancer cells by an in situ proximity ligation assay, showing that it is also detected in the cytoplasm. This result indicates that the role of the thymidylate synthesis complex assembly may go beyond dTMP synthesis. We have successfully assembled the dTMP synthesis complex in vitro, employing tetrameric SHMT1 and a bifunctional chimeric enzyme comprising human thymidylate synthase and dihydrofolate reductase. We show that the SHMT1 tetrameric state is required for efficient complex assembly, indicating that this aggregation state is evolutionarily selected in eukaryotes to optimize protein-protein interactions. Lastly, our results regarding the activity of the complete thymidylate cycle in vitro may provide a useful tool with respect to developing drugs targeting the entire complex instead of the individual components.

The Emerging Role of Amino Acids of the Brain Microenvironment in the Process of Metastasis Formation.

Brain metastases are the most severe clinical manifestation of aggressive tumors. Melanoma, breast, and lung cancers are the types that prefer the brain as a site of metastasis formation, even if the reasons for this phenomenon still remain to be clarified. One of the main characteristics that makes a cancer cell able to form metastases in the brain is the ability to interact with the endothelial cells of the microvasculature, cross the blood-brain barrier, and metabolically adapt to the nutrients available in the new microenvironment. In this review, we analyzed what makes the brain a suitable site for the development of metastases and how this microenvironment, through the continuous release of neurotransmitters and amino acids in the extracellular milieu, is able to support the metabolic needs of metastasizing cells. We also suggested a possible role for amino acids released by the brain through the endothelial cells of the blood-brain barrier into the bloodstream in triggering the process of extravasation/invasion of the brain parenchyma.

Cytosolic serine hydroxymethyltransferase controls lung adenocarcinoma cells migratory ability by modulating AMP kinase activity.

Nutrient utilization and reshaping of metabolism in cancer cells is a well-known driver of malignant transformation. Less clear is the influence of the local microenvironment on metastasis formation and choice of the final organ to invade. Here we show that the level of the amino acid serine in the cytosol affects the migratory properties of lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD) cells. Inhibition of serine or glycine uptake from the extracellular milieu, as well as knockdown of the cytosolic one-carbon metabolism enzyme serine hydroxymethyltransferase (SHMT1), abolishes migration. Using rescue experiments with a brain extracellular extract, and direct measurements, we demonstrate that cytosolic serine starvation controls cell movement by increasing reactive oxygen species formation and decreasing ATP levels, thereby promoting activation of the AMP sensor kinase (AMPK) by phosphorylation. Activation of AMPK induces remodeling of the cytoskeleton and finally controls cell motility. These results highlight that cytosolic serine metabolism plays a key role in controlling motility, suggesting that cells are able to dynamically exploit the compartmentalization of this metabolism to adapt their metabolic needs to different cell functions (movement vs. proliferation). We propose a model to explain the relevance of serine/glycine metabolism in the preferential colonization of the brain by LUAD cells and suggest that the inhibition of serine/glycine uptake and/or cytosolic SHMT1 might represent a successful strategy to limit the formation of brain metastasis from primary tumors, a major cause of death in these patients.

A comparative analysis of secreted protein disulfide isomerases from the tropical co-endemic parasites Schistosoma mansoni and Leishmania major.

The human parasites Schistosoma mansoni and Leishmania major are co-endemic and a major threat to human health. Though displaying different tissue tropisms, they excrete/secrete similar subsets of intracellular proteins that, interacting with the host extracellular matrix (ECM), help the parasites invading the host. We selected one of the most abundant proteins found in the secretomes of both parasites, protein disulfide isomerase (PDI), and performed a comparative screening with surface plasmon resonance imaging (SPRi), looking for ECM binding partners. Both PDIs bind heparan sulfate; none of them binds collagens; each of them binds further ECM components, possibly linked to the different tropisms. We investigated by small-angle X-ray scattering both PDIs structures and those of a few complexes with host partners, in order to better understand the differences within this conserved family fold. Furthermore, we highlighted a previously undisclosed moonlighting behaviour of both PDIs, namely a concentration-dependent switch of function from thiol-oxidoreductase to holdase. Finally, we have tried to exploit the differences to look for possible compounds able to interfere with the redox activity of both PDI.

Fragment-Based Discovery of a Regulatory Site in Thioredoxin Glutathione Reductase Acting as "Doorstop" for NADPH Entry.

Members of the FAD/NAD-linked reductase family are recognized as crucial targets in drug development for cancers, inflammatory disorders, and infectious diseases. However, individual FAD/NAD reductases are difficult to inhibit in a selective manner with off-target inhibition reducing usefulness of identified compounds. Thioredoxin glutathione reductase (TGR), a high molecular weight thioredoxin reductase-like enzyme, has emerged as a promising drug target for the treatment of schistosomiasis, a parasitosis afflicting more than 200 million people. Taking advantage of small molecules selected from a high-throughput screen and using X-ray crystallography, functional assays, and docking studies, we identify a critical secondary site of the enzyme. Compounds binding at this site interfere with well-known and conserved conformational changes associated with NADPH reduction, acting as a doorstop for cofactor entry. They selectively inhibit TGR from Schistosoma mansoni and are active against parasites in culture. Since many members of the FAD/NAD-linked reductase family have similar catalytic mechanisms, the unique mechanism of inhibition identified in this study for TGR broadly opens new routes to selectively inhibit homologous enzymes of central importance in numerous diseases.

Typical 2-Cys peroxiredoxins in human parasites: Several physiological roles for a potential chemotherapy target.

Peroxiredoxins (Prxs) are ubiquitary proteins able to play multiple physiological roles, that include thiol-dependent peroxidase, chaperone holdase, sensor of H2O2, regulator of H2O2-dependent signal cascades, and modulator of the immune response. Prxs have been found in a great number of human pathogens, both eukaryotes and prokaryotes. Gene knock-out studies demonstrated that Prxs are essential for the survival and virulence of at least some of the pathogens tested, making these proteins potential drug targets. However, the multiplicity of roles played by Prxs constitutes an unexpected obstacle to drug development. Indeed, selective inhibitors of some of the functions of Prxs are known (namely of the peroxidase and holdase functions) and are here reported. However, it is often unclear which function is the most relevant in each pathogen, hence which one is most desirable to inhibit. Indeed there are evidences that the main physiological role of Prxs may not be the same in different parasites. We here review which functions of Prxs have been demonstrated to be relevant in different human parasites, finding that the peroxidase and chaperone activities figure prominently, whereas other known functions of Prxs have rarely, if ever, been observed in parasites, or have largely escaped detection thus far.

Uncovering new structural insights for antimalarial activity from cost-effective aculeatin-like derivatives.

A series of new aculeatin-like analogues were synthesized in two steps by combining two sets of building blocks. Many compounds showed inhibitory activities in vitro against Plasmodium falciparum and have helped to gain more insight into structure-activity relationships around the spirocyclohexadienone pharmacophoric scaffold. Plasmodium falciparum thioredoxin reductase (PfTrxR) has been investigated as a putative cellular target. Moreover, a new aculeatin-like scaffold without Michael acceptor properties, efficient at 0.86 µM against P. falciparum 3D7, was identified and raises the prospect of developing a new antimalarial agent.

Selenocysteine robustness versus cysteine versatility: a hypothesis on the evolution of the moonlighting behaviour of peroxiredoxins.

Peroxiredoxins (Prxs) and glutathione peroxidases (Gpxs) provide the majority of peroxides reducing activity in the cytoplasm. Both are peroxidases but differences in the chemical mechanism of reduction of oxidative agents, as well as in the reactivity of the catalytically active residues, confer peculiar features on them. Ultimately, Gpx should be regarded as an efficient peroxides scavenger having a high-reactive selenocysteine (Sec) residue. Prx, by having a low pKa cysteine, is less efficient than Gpx in reduction of peroxides under physiological conditions, but the chemistry of the sulfur together with the peculiar structural arrangement of the active site, in typical Prxs, make it suitable to sense a redox environment and to switch-in-function so as to exert holdase activity under redox-stress conditions. The complex macromolecular assembly would have evolved the chaperone holdase function and the moonlighting behaviour typical of many Prxs.

Thioredoxin reductase and its inhibitors.

Thioredoxin plays a crucial role in a wide number of physiological processes, which span from reduction of nucleotides to deoxyriboucleotides to the detoxification from xenobiotics, oxidants and radicals. The redox function of Thioredoxin is critically dependent on the enzyme Thioredoxin NADPH Reductase (TrxR). In view of its indirect involvement in the above mentioned physio/pathological processes, inhibition of TrxR is an important clinical goal. As a general rule, the affinities and mechanisms of binding of TrxR inhibitors to the target enzyme are known with scarce precision and conflicting results abound in the literature. A relevant analysis of published results as well as the experimental procedures is therefore needed, also in view of the critical interest of TrxR inhibitors. We review the inhibitors of TrxR and related flavoreductases and the classical treatment of reversible, competitive, non competitive and uncompetitive inhibition with respect to TrxR, and in some cases we are able to reconcile contradictory results generated by oversimplified data analysis.

Crystal structure of Plasmodium falciparum thioredoxin reductase, a validated drug target.

Plasmodium falciparum is the vector of the most prevalent and deadly form of malaria, and, among the Plasmodium species, it is the one with the highest rate of drug resistance. At the basis of a rational drug design project there is the selection and characterization of suitable target(s). Thioredoxin reductase, the first protection against reactive oxygen species in the erythrocytic phase of the parasite, is essential for its survival. Hence it represents a good target for the design of new anti-malarial active compounds. In this paper we present the first crystal structure of recombinant P. falciparum thioredoxin reductase (PfTrxR) at 2.9Å and discuss its differences with respect to the human orthologue. The most important one resides in the dimer interface, which offers a good binding site for selective non competitive inhibitors. The striking conservation of this feature among the Plasmodium parasites, but not among other Apicomplexa parasites neither in mammals, boosts its exploitability.

Structure and function in native and pathological erythrocytes: a quantitative view from the nanoscale.

The red blood cells (RBCs) are among the most simple and less expensive cells to purify; for this reason and for their physiological relevance, they have been extensively studied with a variety of techniques. The picture that results is that these cells have several peculiarities including extreme mechanical performances, relatively simple architecture, biological relevance and predictable behavior that make them a perfect laboratory of testing for novel techniques, methodologies and ideas. These include the re-evaluation of old concepts, such as the relationship between structure and function (which is one of the guideline of this report) but considered at the cellular level. The studies reported on this paper, indeed, exploit the full potential of an high resolution quantitative microscopy such as the atomic force microscopy (AFM) to investigate different aspect of the erythrocytes' life, death and interaction with the environment. Indeed, the erythrocytes have a special relationship with the environment that is able to deeply influence their morphology as consequence of alteration of their biochemical or biophysical status. In this context the conditions under which the erythrocytes can be considered as biochemically programmable systems have been investigated by analyzing different environmentally induced alteration of the cell's morphology and comparing the results with naturally occurring pathological morphologies. This class of studies takes great advantage by the additional consideration of the nanomechanical properties of the cells. These latter are particularly important for the cell functionality and are shown to be of practical usefulness to discriminate and partition environmental effects charging different cellular structure (e.g. membrane or membrane-skeleton). Moreover, the development of novel morphological parameter can be important to push the level of investigation on the RBCs' status towards the molecular level. In particular, we describe the introduction and use of the plasma membrane roughness as a morphometric parameter of simple derivation from the AFM images and that results sensitive to the structural integrity of the cells' membrane-skeleton. This offer a remarkable opportunity to investigate the relationship between structure and function in normal and pathological cells by using a morphometric parameter that probes the cell surface at the nanoscale level. At last, a complex but physio-pathologically important phenomenon such as the erythrocytes aging was considered. To properly analyze the many variation that the cells experience during the whole aging path we used all the parameters that the AFM can provides: quantitative imaging, analysis of the membrane roughness and local measure of the nanomechanical properties analyzed together with biochemical parameter such as the ATP content. The picture that emerged is that the aging path is triggered by the ATP intracellular concentration that influence the membrane-skeleton structure and the support exerted on the plasma membrane. The consequences of the membrane-skeleton involvement can be monitored by AFM and showed the occurrence of peculiar morphologies and morphological defects that appear in the very place where the membrane-skeleton contact with the membrane became loose. As a whole, the collected data enable to describe the entire phenomenon as a sequence of morphological intermediates following one another along the aging path.

Moonlighting by different stressors: crystal structure of the chaperone species of a 2-Cys peroxiredoxin.

2-Cys peroxiredoxins (Prxs) play two different roles depending on the physiological status of the cell. They are thioredoxin-dependent peroxidases under low oxidative stress and ATP-independent chaperones upon exposure to high peroxide concentrations. These alternative functions have been associated with changes in the oligomerization state from low-(LMW) to high-molecular-weight (HMW) species. Here we present the structures of Schistosoma mansoni PrxI in both states: the LMW decamer and the HMW 20-mer formed by two stacked decamers. The latter is the structure of a 2-Cys Prx chaperonic form. Comparison of the structures sheds light on the mechanism by which chemical stressors, such as high H(2)O(2) concentration and acidic pH, are sensed and translated into a functional switch in this protein family. We also propose a model to account for the in vivo formation of long filaments of stacked Prx rings.

On the mechanism and rate of gold incorporation into thiol-dependent flavoreductases.

NADPH-dependent flavoreductases are important drug targets. During their enzymatic cycle thiolates and selenolates that have high affinity for transition metals are generated. Auranofin (AF), a gold-containing compound, is classified by the World Health Organization as an antirheumatic agent and it is indicated as the scaffold for the development of new anticancer and antiparasitic drugs. AF inhibits selenocysteine-containing flavoreductases (thioredoxin reductase and thioredoxin glutathione reductase) more effectively than non Se-containing ones (glutathione reductase); this preference has been ascribed to the high affinity of selenium for gold. We solved the 3D structure of the Se-containing Thioredoxin Glutathione Reductase from the human parasite Schistosoma mansoni complexed with Au and our results challenge this view: we believe that the relative velocity of the reaction rather than the relative affinity, depends on the presence of Sec residues, which appear to dictate AF selectivity.

Macromolecular bases of antischistosomal therapy.

Schistosomiasis is a widespread tropical parasitic disease, currently treated with Praziquantel, whose precise molecular target is actually unknown. Several other drugs are known to kill the schistosomes in vivo and in vitro, but these are seldom employed because of toxicity, high cost, complex administration or other reasons. The improvement of known drugs or the development of entirely new ones is a desirable goal, in view of the fact that strains of Schistosoma mansoni with reduced sensitivity to Praziquantel have appeared. In this review, we tried to collect the information available on known or putative macromolecular targets of schistosomicidal drugs; thus we focused on the biochemistry of the parasite, rather than the clinical properties of the drugs. The rationale of this approach is that drug design may become realistic if the mechanism of action of each known drug were known at atomic detail, ideally as the 3D structure of each drug in complex with its target. Important macromolecular targets of known drugs reviewed below are: Thioredoxin Glutathione Reductase; Cyclophilin; Acetyl Cholinesterase; Proteases and Purine Nucleoside Phosphorylase. Moreover, a few enzymes of the parasite are known, or thought, to be "druggable", and therefore interesting, even though no specific drugs are available as yet: examples of such enzymes are Glutathione Peroxidase and Peroxiredoxins.

Structural and functional characterization of Schistosoma mansoni Thioredoxin.

Schistosomiasis, the human parasitosis caused by various species of the blood-fluke Schistosoma, is a debilitating disease affecting 200 million people in tropical areas. The massive administration of the only effective drug, praziquantel, leads to the appearance of less sensitive parasite strains, thus, making urgent the search for new therapeutic approaches and new suitable targets. The thiol-mediated detoxification pathway has been identified as a promising target, being essential during all the parasite developmental stages and sufficiently different from the host counterpart. As a part of a project aimed at the structural characterization of all the proteins involved in this pathway, we describe hereby the high-resolution crystal structure of Schistosoma mansoni Thioredoxin (SmTrx) in three states, namely: the wild-type oxidized adult enzyme and the oxidized and reduced forms of a juvenile isoform, carrying an N-terminal extension. SmTrx shows a typical thioredoxin fold, highly similar to the other components of the superfamily. Although probably unlikely to be a reasonable drug target given its high similarity with the human counterpart, SmTrx completes the characterization of the whole set of thiol-mediated detoxification pathway components. Moreover, it can reduce oxidized glutathione and is one of the few defence proteins expressed in mature eggs and in the hatch fluid, thus confirming an important role in the parasite. We believe its crystal structure may provide clues for the formation of granulomas and the pathogenesis of the chronic disease.

Mapping the catalytic cycle of Schistosoma mansoni thioredoxin glutathione reductase by X-ray crystallography.

Schistosomiasis is the second most widespread human parasitic disease. It is principally treated with one drug, praziquantel, that is administered to 100 million people each year; less sensitive strains of schistosomes are emerging. One of the most appealing drug targets against schistosomiasis is thioredoxin glutathione reductase (TGR). This natural chimeric enzyme is a peculiar fusion of a glutaredoxin domain with a thioredoxin selenocysteine (U)-containing reductase domain. Selenocysteine is located on a flexible C-terminal arm that is usually disordered in the available structures of the protein and is essential for the full catalytic activity of TGR. In this study, we dissect the catalytic cycle of Schistosoma mansoni TGR by structural and functional analysis of the U597C mutant. The crystallographic data presented herein include the following: the oxidized form (at 1.9 Å resolution); the NADPH- and GSH-bound forms (2.3 and 1.9 Å, respectively); and a different crystal form of the (partially) reduced enzyme (3.1 Å), showing the physiological dimer and the entire C terminus of one subunit. Whenever possible, we determined the rate constants for the interconversion between the different oxidation states of TGR by kinetic methods. By combining the crystallographic analysis with computer modeling, we were able to throw further light on the mechanism of action of S. mansoni TGR. In particular, we hereby propose the putative functionally relevant conformational change of the C terminus after the transfer of reducing equivalents from NADPH to the redox sites of the enzyme.

The how, when, and why of the aging signals appearing on the human erythrocyte membrane: an atomic force microscopy study of surface roughness.

We recently developed an atomic force microscopy-based protocol to use the roughness of the plasma membrane of erythrocytes (red blood cells, RBCs) as a morphological parameter, independently from the cell shape, to investigate the membrane-skeleton integrity in healthy and pathological cells. Here we apply the method to investigate a complex physiological phenomenon, the RBCs aging, that plays a major role in the regulation of the RBCs' turnover. The aging, monitored morphologically and biochemically, has been accelerated and modulated by preventing oxidative stresses as well as the effects of proteases and divalent cations, and by artificially consuming the intracellular adenosine triphosphate. The collected data evidence that the progression of aging causes a drastic decrease of the measured roughness that is diagnostic of a progressive, adenosine triphosphate-dependent alteration of the membrane-skeleton properties. Finally, the degree of reversibility of such effects has been investigated as a function of aging time, enabling the detection of irreversible transformation in the RBCs' structure and metabolism.

Erythrocyte death in vitro induced by starvation in the absence of Ca(2+).

Human erythrocytes (RBCs), stored at 4 degrees C under nominal absence of external energy sources and calcium ions, show a gradual decrease in membrane roughness (R(rms)) at the end of which the appearance of morphological phenomena (spicules, vesicles and spherocytes) is observed on the cell membrane, phenomena that can mainly be ascribed to the ATP-dependent disconnection of the cortical cytoskeleton from the lipid bilayer. After depletion of the intracellular energy sources obtained under the extreme conditions chosen, treatment with a minimal rejuvenation solution makes the following remarks possible: (i) RBCs are able to regenerate adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate only up to 4 days of storage at 4 degrees C, whereas from the eighth day energy stocks cannot be replenished because of a disorder in the transmembrane mechanisms of transport; (ii) the RBCs' roughness may be restored to the initial value (i.e. that observed in fresh RBCs) only in samples stored up to 4-5 days, whereas after the eighth day of storage the rejuvenation procedure appears to be inefficient; (iii) membrane physical properties - as measured by R(rms) - are actually controlled by the metabolic production of ATP, necessary to perform the RBCs' basic functions; (iv) once energy stores cannot be replenished, a regulated sequence of the morphological events (represented by local buckles that lead to formation of spicules and vesicles of the lipid bilayer with generation of spherocytes) is reminiscent of the RBCs' apoptotic final stages; (v) the morphological phenomenology of the final apoptotic stages is passive (i.e. determined by simple mechanical forces) and encoded in the mechanical properties of the membrane-skeleton; and (vi) necrotic aspects (e.g. disruption of cell membrane integrity, so that intracellular protein content is easily released) ensue when RBCs are almost totally (> or =90%) depleted in an irreversible way of the energetic stores.

Combining crystallography and molecular dynamics: the case of Schistosoma mansoni phospholipid glutathione peroxidase.

Oxidative stress is a widespread challenge for living organisms, and especially so for parasitic ones, given the fact that their hosts can produce reactive oxygen species (ROS) as a mechanism of defense. Thus, long lived parasites, such as the flatworm Schistosomes, have evolved refined enzymatic systems capable of detoxifying ROS. Among these, glutathione peroxidases (Gpx) are a family of sulfur or selenium-dependent isozymes sharing the ability to reduce peroxides using the reducing equivalents provided by glutathione or possibly small proteins such as thioredoxin. As for other frontline antioxidant enzymatic systems, Gpxs are localized in the tegument of the Schistosomes, the outermost defense layer. In this article, we present the first crystal structure at 1.0 and 1.7 A resolution of two recombinant SmGpxs, carrying the active site mutations Sec43Cys and Sec43Ser, respectively. The structures confirm that this enzyme belongs to the monomeric class 4 (phospholipid hydroperoxide) Gpx. In the case of the Sec to Cys mutant, the catalytic Cys residue is oxidized to sulfonic acid. By combining static crystallography with molecular dynamics simulations, we obtained insight into the substrate binding sites and the conformational changes relevant to catalysis, proposing a role for the unusual reactivity of the catalytic residue.

Inhibition of Schistosoma mansoni thioredoxin-glutathione reductase by auranofin: structural and kinetic aspects.

Schistosomiasis is a parasitic disease affecting over 200 million people currently treated with one drug, praziquantel. A possible drug target is the seleno-protein thioredoxin-glutathione reductase (TGR), a key enzyme in the pathway of the parasite for detoxification of reactive oxygen species. The enzyme is a unique fusion of a glutaredoxin domain with a thioredoxin reductase domain, which contains a selenocysteine (Sec) as the penultimate amino acid. Auranofin (AF), a gold-containing compound already in clinical use as an anti-arthritic drug, has been shown to inhibit TGR and to substantially reduce worm burden in mice. Using x-ray crystallography we solved (at 2.5 A resolution) the structure of wild type TGR incubated with AF. The electron density maps show that the actual inhibitor is gold, released from AF. Gold is bound at three different sites not directly involving the C-terminal Sec residue; however, because the C terminus in the electron density maps is disordered, we cannot exclude the possibility that gold may also bind to Sec. To investigate the possible role of Sec in the inactivation kinetics, we tested the effect of AF on a model enzyme of the same superfamily, i.e. the naturally Sec-lacking glutathione reductase, and on truncated TGR. We demonstrate that the role of selenium in the onset of inhibition by AF is catalytic and can be mimicked by an external source of selenium (benzeneselenol). Therefore, we propose that Sec mediates the transfer of gold from its ligands in AF to the redox-active Cys couples of TGR.