Veterinary service missions and good governance.

The rationale for the existence of official Veterinary Services (VS) has seldom been under such intensive public scrutiny as over the past two decades when the world has been confronted with outbreaks of major animal diseases that have posed a potential threat not only to human health but also to animal health and national food security. The mere existence of VS is not enough. The mission statement of the VS can no longer be cast in stone but needs to adapt and be amended continually to cope with new demands. The ability to ensure not only acceptance but also sustainability of the delivery of VS as a global public good, thereby demonstrating good governance, is becoming and will remain a challenge in terms of keeping it a non-rivalrous and non-excludable service to a demanding public clientele. Mission statements to improve the health and welfare of animals will, however, remain no more than noble normative statements of intent if further refinement on how this should be done and governed is not encompassed in the strategic plans, vision and goals of the Veterinary Authority. They will also remain but noble statements if cognisance is not taken of the increased sensitivity, nationally and internationally, around animal welfare issues during transport, movement, housing, treatment and slaughter of animals and if this sensitivity is not reflected or addressed in national animal health and veterinary public health legislation. The author describes some of the ways in which currently accepted critical functions of the VS need to change to demonstrate good governance and respond to the challenges of new or amended missions in order to meet the demands of an ever-changing VS environment.

Managing the risks of disease transmission through trade: a commodities-based approach?

Since its founding in 1924, the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) has facilitated safe trade in animals and animal products by developing effective standards to prevent the spread of animal diseases across the globe. A protocol for recognising the disease-free status of countries is an integral part of this process and has been adopted and advanced through the years to assist OIE Member Countries in placing disease-free animals and their products on the international market. Options such as trade from disease-free zones and disease-free compartments are now available to Members and have proven to be a positive mechanism for facilitating trade. A further option is trading in safe commodities, i.e. animals and animal products that have been identified as safe to trade even in the presence of disease, either with or without applying risk mitigation measures before export. Although most Members have incorporated the acceptance of disease-free countries or zones into their animal health policies and sanitary measures, there still appears to be a reluctance to trade in commodities from infected countries, despite clear, scientifically based risk management standards that can be applied if needed. This paper offers some examples reflecting the apparent reluctance to trade in commodities and discusses how the standards in the OIE's Terrestrial Animal Health Code could be used to apply scientifically based risk management practices to review outdated policies.

Ensuring safe international trade: how are the roles and responsibilities evolving and what will the situation be in ten years' time?

The roles of the international standard-setting bodies that are mandated to facilitate safe trade, such as the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE), the Codex Alimentarius Commission, the International Plant Protection Convention and the World Trade Organization, are well documented, as are the roles of the international organisations responsible for global health issues: the OIE, the World Health Organization and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. However, developments in international trade, such as accelerating globalisation and the frequent emergence and re-emergence of diseases affecting both humans and animals, have brought new challenges and the need to reconsider the future roles of such organisations. New participants and new demands have also emerged to challenge these mandates, leading to potential areas of conflict. The need for countries to establish themselves as new trade partners, or to strengthen their positions while still maintaining safe trade, poses a challenge to standard-setting organisations, which must meet these demands while still remaining sensitive to the needs of developing countries. In this paper, the author describes and discusses some of these challenges and suggests how international organisations could evolve to confront such issues.

The role of the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) to facilitate the international trade in animals and animal products.

The international trade in animals and animal products has become a sensitive issue for both developed and developing countries by posing an important risk for the international spread of animal and human pathogens whilst at the same time being an essential activity to ensure world-wide food security and food safety. The OIE has since its founding in 1924, applied a democratic and transparent decision-making process to continuously develop and review international standards for animal health and zoonoses to facilitate trade in animals and animal products. The role of the OIE is also mandated by the World Trade Organization (WTO) as international reference point for standards related to animal health. In support of its overall objective of promoting animal health world-wide, the OIE has also launched several other initiatives such as the improvement of the governance of veterinary services within its member countries and territories and to enhance the availability of diagnostic and scientific expertise on a more even global geographical distribution. Several trade facilitating concepts such as country, zonal and compartment freedom from disease as well the trade in disease free commodities has been introduced to enhance the trade in animals and animal products for all its members including those from developing and transitional countries who are still in the process of enhancing to full compliance with international sanitary standards.

Responses to a questionnaire on networking between OIE Reference Laboratories and OIE Collaborating Centres.

Two separate questionnaires were distributed to 20 OIE Collaborating Centres and 160 OIE Reference Laboratories to assess the current status of networking and collaboration among OIE Reference Laboratories and between OIE Reference Laboratories and OIE Collaborating Centres. The questionnaire for the OIE Reference Laboratories contained 7 sections with questions on networking between laboratories, reporting of information, biosecurity quality control, and financing. Emphasis was placed in obtaining information on inter-laboratory relationships and exchange of expertise, training needs and sharing of data and information. The questionnaire for the OIE Collaborating Centres contained six sections with the emphasis on aspects related to awareness of services that can be provided, expertise that could be made available, sharing of information and the relationship with the national veterinary services of the countries concerned. The responses to the questionnaires were collated, categorised and statistically evaluated to allow for tentative inferences on the data provided. Valuable information emanated from the data identifying the current status of networking and indicating possible shortcomings that could be addressed to improve networking.

Avian influenza in ostriches: epidemiological investigation in the Western Cape Province of South Africa.

An H5N2 avian influenza virus was isolated from ostriches in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa in July 2004. During a subsequent national survey to determine the possible presence of the disease in other areas of South Africa, specific antibodies against H5 avian influenza were detected by the haemagglutination inhibition test in ostrich sera collected in the Western Cape Province. However, the sampling strategy used in the initial survey was developed to accommodate practical constraints but did not truly reflect the prevalence of the sero-reactor entities. A follow-up survey was therefore conducted from March to May 2005 to obtain more representative samples. None of the 15 126 serum samples collected from ostriches aged 0-4 months was positive, while 2.4% of the 14 664 serum samples collected from slaughter ostriches aged 5-14 months and 3.66% of the 8 791 samples collected from breeder ostriches aged over 14 months were positive. Fourteen farms were inspected in particular to identify relevant risk factors and risk mitigation procedures that could minimise the spread of the disease. It was concluded that biosecurity measures should be improved on ostrich farms, in particular to minimise possible contact between ostriches and wild birds.

Working towards compliance with international standards.

Developing countries are increasingly coming under pressure to improve their delivery of veterinary services as a prerequisite for entering the competitive arena of international trade in animals and animal products. The demands placed on developing countries by predominantly developed countries to comply with international disease prevention standards have also resulted in increasing demands on the financial, human and technological resources of these developing countries. The minimum requirements of the Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures and the standards, guidelines and recommendations of international standard-setting organisations, such as the OIE (World organisation for animal health), are evaluated in terms of the opportunities embedded within these guidelines for developing countries. Such an evaluation indicates that the rights and obligations contained in these standards, guidelines and recommendations do not necessarily protect only the interests of developed countries but also encourage developing countries to work towards the levels of compliance and disease prevention required by their potential trade partners. The costs of this compliance can be reduced by exploiting more cost-effective alternatives for delivering services, when dictated by budgetary constraints. International organisations have illustrated on many occasions, and through a variety of development programmes, that they do indeed realise their responsibility towards developing countries in the areas of increased capacity building and technical assistance. If international organisations can refocus their interventions on the actual and specific needs of developing countries, then they can help to expedite the process of compliance with international standards.

Foot-and-mouth disease control using vaccination: South African experience.

South Africa has zoned status from the Office International des Epizooties (OIE) with the largest part of the country being foot-and-mouth disease (FMD)-free without vaccination. Outbreaks in this zone are handled differently from outbreaks in the control zones, which do not affect the export status of the country. However, the different socio-economic groupings need to be considered when reaching control decisions and in this regard, the country has been challenged with unique foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) control options. Vaccination has been shown to be effective both in ensuring that disease does not spread from the endemic to the free zone, as well as controlling outbreaks in the free zone. New adjuvants that claim to illicit longer lasting immunity have been tested with antigens derived from the SAT serotypes and animals were challenged one year post vaccination to determine the level of protection. However, even with vaccines that provide immunity for more than a year, an annual vaccination campaign will most probably not be acceptable in the buffer zone where calving occurs throughout the year.

Foot and mouth disease: the experience of South Africa.

Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is endemic in African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) in the Kruger National Park (KNP) and surrounding game parks in South Africa. The last outbreak of the disease in domestic stock outside the FMD control zone occurred in 1957. Due to the success in containing the disease, the country was accorded zone freedom from FMD without vaccination by the Office International des Epizooties (OIE: World organisation for animal health) in 1995. This status was lost in September 2000 when the first-ever recorded case of serotype O in South Africa was diagnosed in a piggery in KwaZulu-Natal after the illegal feeding of untreated swill. In November 2000, an outbreak of FMD caused by serotype South African Territories (SAT) 1 was diagnosed in a feedlot within the free zone of Mpumalanga Province. The SAT 1 outbreak was traced to cattle in the FMD control zone south of the KNP after the game-proof fence surrounding the KNP was severely damaged by floods. This enabled buffalo to come into direct contact with cattle outside the KNP. A further outbreak caused by SAT 2 was diagnosed within the FMD control zone in February 2001, also as a result of buffalo having escaped from the KNP. All these outbreaks were successfully contained, with the re-instatement of zone freedom from FMD without vaccination by the OIE in May 2002. These outbreaks made it necessary to re-examine the methods of control and containment of FMD that have been practised for many years and which are in line with accepted international practices. The authors describe the rationale for the different control strategies that were followed, the need for a multidisciplinary approach to disease control, the interface between control and technological and diagnostic support and the lessons learned. Some suggestions for future control strategies are also offered.

Experimental infection of ostriches with Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever virus.

Following the occurrence of an outbreak of Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever (CCHF) among workers at an ostrich abattoir in South Africa in 1996, 9 susceptible young ostriches were infected subcutaneously with the virus in order to study the nature of the infection which they undergo. The ostriches developed viraemia which was demonstrable on days 1-4 following infection, with a maximum intensity of 4.0 log10 mouse intracerebral LD50/ml being recorded on day 2 in 1 of the birds. Virus was detectable in visceral organs such as spleen, liver and kidney up to day 5 post-inoculation, 1 day after it could no longer be found in blood. No infective virus was detected in samples of muscle, but viral nucleic acid was detected by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction in muscle from a bird sacrificed on day 3 following infection. It was concluded that the occurrence of infection in ostriches at abattoirs could be prevented by keeping the birds free of ticks for 14 days before slaughter.

Review of disease control in aquaculture in the Republic of South Africa.

The disease control measures in respect of domestic and wildlife aquatic species in the Republic of South Africa (RSA) are shared between two Directorates in the Department of Agriculture. The Directorate of Animal Health is responsible for disease control measures in respect of Salmonidae, while the Directorate of Plant and Quality Control regulates the introduction of exotic and unwanted aquatic species into the RSA. The activities and interests of commercial aquaculture are coordinated through the South African Aquaculture Organization and a national coordinating committee under the control of the national Department of Agriculture. Four diseases of trout are notifiable under the terms of the Animal Diseases Act (Act 35 of 1984), namely viral haemorrhagic septicaemia, infectious pancreatic necrosis, infectious haematopoietic necrosis and bacterial kidney disease. The zoosanitary measures in respect of these diseases require State intervention after detection of occurrence. Sampling procedures for the diagnosis of diseases, maintenance of the disease-free status of trout farms accredited for export purposes and requirements for the import of ova are based on the standards recommended in the International Aquatic Animal Health Code of the Office International des Epizooties. Zoosanitary control of other aquatic species not related to aquaculture--especially ornamental fish--may be unnecessary. An embargo, through existing legislation on the importation of unwanted species, has been the only means of protecting inland species. The author concludes by evaluating the need for, and the feasibility of, additional legislation for the zoosanitary control of other aquatic species.

Special challenges of maintaining wild animals in captivity: a southern African perspective.

The authors summarise the issues of concern in game ranching, and the challenges involved in maintaining and utilising wild animals. The more intensive farming of ostriches and crocodiles is discussed. An indication of regulatory controls on the movement and possession of wild animals is given. Institutions concerned with aspects of wildlife care, rehabilitation and research are described.

African horse sickness surveillance systems and regionalisation/zoning: the case of South Africa.

Central and Southern Africa are generally regarded as being endemic areas for African horse sickness (AHS). With the advent of the concepts of risk analysis and regionalisation/zoning, however, the possibility has now arisen of establishing 'zones' within South Africa for AHS surveillance purposes. In 1993, a protocol was submitted to the European Community (now European Union: EU), proposing the establishment of an AHS-free zone in the Cape peninsula. The proposal is based on historical evidence that AHS virus overwinters (in zebra) only in the Kruger National Park, from where it spreads westwards and southwards every year. The infection only extends to the Western Cape Province once every fifteen years. A ban on vaccination in the proposed AHS-free zone has been suggested, together with strict control of the movement of horses into and through this zone. The entire equine population of this zone (some 8,000 animals) would serve as sentinels. All equine mortalities would be notifiable, with mandatory post-mortem examinations. The establishment of an insect-free quarantine station in this zone would enable the movement of certified AHS virus-free horses from South Africa to the EU and the rest of the world.

Rabies in southern Africa.

The first confirmed outbreak of rabies in Africa, believed to have followed the importation of an infected dog from England in 1892, occurred in the eastern Cape Province of South Africa, and was brought under control in 1894. An unconfirmed epidemic of rabies in dogs occurred in western Zambia in 1901. By the following year the disease had apparently spread along a major trade route, to cause an outbreak in Zimbabwe which engulfed most of the country before being eradicated in 1913. The existence of endemic rabies of viverrids (mongooses and genets) was confirmed in South Africa in 1928, and since then the viverrid disease has continued to occur widely on the interior plateau of the country with spill-over of infection to cattle and a variety of other animals. From about 1947 onwards, an invasive form of dog rabies spread from southern Zambia and/or Angola into Namibia, across northern and eastern Botswana into Zimbabwe and the northern Transvaal by 1950, entered Mozambique in 1952, and spread from there to Swaziland in 1954. Dog rabies extended from southern Mozambique into Natal in 1961 to cause a major epidemic which was brought under control in 1968. The disease re-entered northern Natal from Mozambique in 1976 and since then dog rabies has proved difficult to control in the peri-urban settlements of Natal-KwaZulu. The disease spread from Natal to Lesotho in 1982, and into the Transkei region of the eastern Cape Province in 1987, to reach the Ciskei by 1990. The spread of the disease in dogs was followed by the emergence of rabies of jackals and cattle in central Namibia, northern Botswana, Zimbabwe and the northern Transvaal. A unique outbreak of rabies in kudu antelope occurred in central Namibia from 1977 to 1985, apparently involving oral spread of infection between individuals. A few cases of rabies in the bat-eared fox were recognized each year in Namibia from 1967 onwards, and from the 1970s the occurrence of the disease in the fox has emerged as a distinct problem in the northern Cape Province and spread to the west coast. The rabies-related viruses, Lagos bat, Mokola and Duvenhage, associated with bats, shrews and rodents in Africa, are known to have caused isolated cases of disease in South Africa, and on one occasion a small outbreak involving six cats and a dog in Bulawayo, Zimbabwe.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Field observations on the occurrence of rabies in cattle in the magisterial districts of Soutpansberg and Messina.

The field manifestation of rabies in cattle is discussed. The observations cover the period 1974--1977 with emphasis on the geographical spread, vectors, symptoms and immunization of cattle with the Flury H.E.P. (high egg passage) rabies vaccine as prepared by the Onderstepoort Veterinary Research Institute.