Coping and psychological well-being among persons with relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis: The role of perceived self-efficacy.

OBJECTIVE: To explore self-efficacy as a possible mediator in the relationship between adaptive coping and psychological well-being (PWB) in persons with relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS). METHOD: 174 persons with RRMS (91% Female) completed an online survey consisting of psychosocial questionnaires. The COPE Inventory was used to create an adaptive coping composite that accounts for the relative contributions of both active and avoidant coping. Self-efficacy was measured using the General Self-Efficacy Scale. The Ryff Psychological Well-Being Scales captured several domains of PWB: Positive relations with others, autonomy, purpose in life, environmental mastery, self-acceptance, and personal growth. The SPSS PROCESS macro was used to test whether self-efficacy mediated the association between adaptive coping and each PWB subscale, using 5,000 bootstrap samples to estimate confidence intervals. RESULTS: In each mediational model, adaptive coping was significantly associated with each PWB subscale and self-efficacy (all p's ≤ 0.001). Self-efficacy was also significantly associated with each PWB subscale (p ≤ 0.001). After controlling for self-efficacy, the associations between adaptive coping and positive relations with others (indirect effect = 0.021, 95% CI [0.011, 0.033]) and autonomy (indirect effect = 0.019, 95% CI [0.011, 0.028]) became non-significant. The separate associations between adaptive coping and purpose in life (p = .004), self-acceptance (p = .026), and personal growth (p < .001) remained significant, despite controlling for self-efficacy. CONCLUSIONS: Self-efficacy fully mediated the relationships between adaptive coping and positive relations with others and autonomy in our sample of persons with RRMS. Interventions aimed at increasing adaptive coping skills and self-efficacy may improve relations with others and autonomy among persons with MS.

Physical Activity Moderates the Association Between Pain and Depressive Symptoms Among Persons with Multiple Sclerosis.

OBJECTIVE: The present study examined physical activity as a possible moderator in the relationship between pain and depressive symptoms among persons with multiple sclerosis (PwMS). METHOD: Fifty-three PwMS completed a comprehensive neuropsychological test battery and psychosocial questionnaires. Pain was operationalized as a composite of measures from the Brief Pain Inventory. Metabolic equivalents (METs) of energy expended during self-reported vigorous activity (VA), moderate activity (MA), and walking, as well as global physical activity which combined the three, were derived from the International Physical Activity Questionnaire-Short Form. Self-reported physical activity was measured using the Cognitive Health Questionnaire Exercise Scale. Regressions on depressive symptoms (Beck Depression Inventory-Fast Screen) examining both conceptualizations of physical activity, pain, and their interactions were explored. RESULTS: Regression analyses revealed that interactions between pain and each measure of global physical activity were significant (p = .01). Simple effects tests revealed that pain only influenced depressive symptoms in PwMS with low global physical activity METs (p < .001) and low overall self-reported physical activity (p < .001). The separate interactions between pain and METs during self-reported VA, MA, and walking on depressive symptoms were not significant. CONCLUSION: We found that global physical activity moderated the relationship between pain and depressive symptoms in MS. Specifically, pain influenced depressive symptoms in PwMS who engaged in less overall physical activity. These results highlight the importance of screening PwMS for pain and suggest that behavioral interventions aimed at increasing overall lifestyle physical activity may be useful in improving depressive outcomes in PwMS with pain.

Cognitive Reserve Moderates the Effects of Fatigue and Depressive Symptoms in Multiple Sclerosis.

To investigate cognitive reserve as a possible moderator in the relationship between fatigue and depressive symptoms in persons with multiple sclerosis (PwMS). Fifty-three PwMS (37 female; mean age, 52.66; mean education, 14.81) completed comprehensive neuropsychological testing and psychosocial questionnaires assessing the perceived effects of fatigue (Fatigue Impact Scale) and depressive symptoms (Beck Depression Inventory-Fast Screen). Cognitive reserve (CR) was operationalized as Fixed CR and Malleable CR. Fixed CR was quantified as the standardized mean of years of education and a vocabulary-based estimate of premorbid intelligence. Malleable CR was quantified as the standardized mean of cognitive exertion, exercise, and socializing items from the Cognitive Health Questionnaire. Regressions on depressive symptoms examining fatigue, both conceptualizations of CR, and their interactions were explored. A Bonferroni correction was used; results were considered significant at an alpha level of p < .01. The interactions between fatigue and both conceptualizations of CR were significant, p = .005 (Fixed CR); p = .004 (Malleable CR). Simple effects tests revealed that fatigue only predicted depressive symptoms in PwMS with low Fixed CR or low Malleable CR (p's < .001), and not in those with high Fixed or high Malleable CR (p > .01). Cognitive reserve moderated the relationship between fatigue and depressive symptoms in PwMS. Specifically, fatigue does not appear to influence depression in PwMS with high cognitive reserve. Having higher cognitive reserve (either Fixed or Malleable) may reduce the likelihood that fatigue will lead to depressive symptoms in MS.

Aß-CT Affective Touch: Touch Pleasantness Ratings for Gentle Stroking and Deep Pressure Exhibit Dependence on A-Fibers.

Gentle stroking of the skin is a common social touch behavior with positive affective consequences. A preference for slow versus fast stroking of hairy skin has been closely linked to the firing of unmyelinated C-tactile (CT) somatosensory afferents. Because the firing of CT afferents strongly correlates with touch pleasantness, the CT pathway has been considered a social-affective sensory pathway. Recently, ablation of the spinothalamic pathway- thought to convey all C-fiber sensations- in patients with cancer pain impaired pain, temperature, and itch, but not ratings of pleasant touch. This suggested integration of afferent A and CT fiber input in the spinal cord, or mechanoreceptive A-fiber contributions to computations of touch pleasantness in the brain. However, contribution of mechanoreceptive A-fibers to touch pleasantness, in humans without pain, remains unknown. In the current, single-blinded study, we performed two types of peripheral nerve blocks in healthy adults to temporarily eliminate the contribution of A-fibers to touch perception. Our findings show that when mechanoreceptive A-fiber function is greatly diminished, the perceived intensity and pleasantness of both gentle stroking and deep pressure are nearly abolished. These findings demonstrate that explicit perception of the pleasantness of CT-targeted brushing and pressure both critically depend on afferent A-fibers.

Affective Disturbance and Neurocognitive Variability in College Athletes.

OBJECTIVE: Research on the neurocognitive effects of comorbid mood/anxiety disturbance in college athletes is limited. Previous research found that athletes with comorbid depression/anxiety performed worse on measures of attention/processing speed (A/PS) at baseline compared to healthy controls. However, this work solely examined mean performance. The current study expands upon this work by examining intraindividual variability (IIV) in relation to affective disturbance. METHOD: 835 (M = 624, F = 211) collegiate athletes completed baseline neuropsychological testing. Athletes were separated into four groups (Healthy Mood [n = 582], Depression Alone [n = 137], Anxiety Alone [n = 54], and Co-Occurring Depression/Anxiety [n = 62]) based on self-reported anxiety and depression. IIV was examined globally and within composites of A/PS and memory via intraindividual standard deviation, with higher scores indicating greater variability. RESULTS: Linear regression results revealed that the Co-Occurring Depression/Anxiety group exhibited greater variability within the memory composite compared to the Healthy Mood group, as well as the Depression Alone and Anxiety Alone groups. The Depression Alone and Anxiety Alone groups did not differ from the Healthy Mood group on memory IIV. None of the groups differed on A/PS or global IIV. CONCLUSIONS: Athletes with co-occurring depression/anxiety demonstrated greater variability in performance on memory tasks. Greater dispersion is predictive of greater cognitive decline following concussion; therefore, it is important that neuropsychological performance is interpreted beyond measures of central tendency. These findings also highlight the importance of having baseline data available for athletes with affective disturbance, as these factors may influence performance, place athlete at risk for poorer outcomes, and skew future post-concussion comparisons.

Subjective Report, Objective Neurocognitive Performance, and "Invisible Symptoms" in Multiple Sclerosis.

BACKGROUND: Self- and informant-report measures are often useful in predicting objective cognitive performance; however, the relationship between these reports and mood, anxiety, and fatigue requires further examination. Additionally, it remains unclear as to how these factors might be associated with objective neurocognitive performance. METHODS: Eighty-six persons with multiple sclerosis (PwMS; F = 65, M = 21) completed a comprehensive neuropsychological battery that included objective neurocognitive measures, subjective reports of neurocognitive function with the Multiple Sclerosis Neuropsychological Screening Questionnaire (MSNQ) Self-Report (MSNQ-S) and Informant-Report (MSNQ-I), and self-report measures of anxiety, depression, and fatigue. Hierarchical linear regressions were conducted with depression, anxiety, the interaction between depression and anxiety, cognitive fatigue, and physical fatigue as predictors. Outcome variables included the MSNQ-S, MSNQ-I, each of five neurocognitive composites, and global intraindividual variability (IIV). RESULTS: Although greater cognitive fatigue was associated with greater reported cognitive dysfunction, it was not associated with objective neurocognitive impairment. Greater depression predicted poorer performance on measures of processing speed and verbal memory, though the effects became non-significant once accounting for anxiety. The interaction between depression and anxiety predicted greater neurocognitive IIV; those with high levels of depression and anxiety demonstrated greater dispersion of scores. CONCLUSIONS: Cognitive fatigue may skew one's perception of their cognition, though it is not associated with objective impairment. However, co-occurring depression and anxiety were associated with greater variability which is a marker of poorer neurocognitive integrity. Our findings highlight the importance of accounting for depression, anxiety, and cognitive fatigue in PwMS, given that they are all potentially modifiable factors.

Functional Outcomes, Injury Variables, and Athlete Characteristics Associated with Post-Concussion Sleep Disturbance.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the relationship between sleep disturbance and functional outcomes following a concussion. Also, to explore athlete and injury-related variables that may be related to risk factors for poor sleep following concussion. METHOD: 124 collegiate athletes completed a neuropsychological evaluation within 14 days of sustaining a sport-related concussion (SRC). Athletes were categorized as sleep disturbed (n = 52) or not sleep disturbed (n = 72). Outcome variables included symptom reports, cognitive performance (mean performance and variability), and mood (depression). Injury characteristics and athlete characteristics explored were loss of consciousness (LOC) associated with the injury, whether the athlete was immediately removed from play, and history of prior concussions. RESULTS: Sleep disturbed athletes reported more symptoms, F(4, 119) = 7.82, p < 0.001, ƞ2 = 0.21, were more likely to be symptomatic at the time of testing, χ2(1, N = 124) = 19.79, p < 0.001, φ = 0.40, and were marginally more likely to experience clinically significant depression, χ2(1, N = 120) = 3.03, p = 0.08, φ = 0.16, than not sleep disturbed athletes. There were no cognitive differences between the groups, p > 0.05. A greater proportion of sleep disturbed athletes experienced LOC (30%) compared to not sleep disturbed athletes (13%), χ2(1, N = 118) = 4.99, p = 0.03, φ = -0.21. CONCLUSION: Sleep disturbances following SRC are associated with a broad range of self-reported symptoms. LOC may be associated with an increased risk of developing sleep disturbances; alternatively, sleep disturbances may increase the risk of LOC following concussion.

Prospective Implications of Insufficient Sleep for Athletes.

CONTEXT: Poor sleep is common in collegiate student-athletes and is associated with heterogeneous self-reported complaints at baseline. However, the long-term implications of poor sleep at baseline have been less well studied. OBJECTIVE: To examine the implications of insufficient sleep at baseline, as well as factors such as symptom reporting and neurocognitive performance at baseline associated with insufficient sleep, for the risk of sport-related concussion (SRC). DESIGN: Cross-sectional study. SETTING: Undergraduate institution. PATIENTS OR OTHER PARTICIPANTS: Student-athletes (N = 614) were divided into 2 groups based on the hours slept the night before baseline testing: sufficient (>7.07 hours) or insufficient (≤5.78 hours) sleepers. Athletes who went on to sustain an SRC during their athletic careers at our university were identified. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S): Four symptom clusters (cognitive, physical, affective, and sleep) and headache were examined as self-reported outcomes. Four neurocognitive outcome measures were explored: mean composite of memory, mean composite of attention/processing speed, memory intraindividual variability (IIV), and attention/processing speed IIV. RESULTS: Insufficient sleepers at baseline were nearly twice as likely (15.69%) as sufficient sleepers (8.79%) to go on to sustain an SRC. Insufficient sleepers at baseline, whether or not they went on to sustain an SRC, reported a higher number of baseline symptoms than did sufficient sleepers. When compared with either insufficient sleepers at baseline who did not go on to incur an SRC or with sufficient sleepers who did go on to sustain an SRC, the insufficient sleep group that went on to incur an SRC performed worse at baseline on mean attention/processing speed. CONCLUSIONS: The combination of insufficient sleep and worse attention/processing speed performance at baseline may increase the risk of sustaining a future SRC.

Relationship between subjective report and objective assessment of neurocognitive functioning in persons with multiple sclerosis.

OBJECTIVE: Persons with multiple sclerosis (PwMS) are at increased risk for cognitive dysfunction. Considering the impact and potential ramifications of cognitive dysfunction, it is important that cognition is routinely assessed in PwMS. Thus, it is also important to identify a screener that is accurate and sensitive to MS-related cognitive difficulties, which can inform decisions for more resource-intensive neuropsychological testing. However, research focused on available self-report screeners has been mixed, such as with the Multiple Sclerosis Neuropsychological Screening Questionnaire (MSNQ). This study aims to clarify the relationship between subjective and objective assessment of cognitive functioning in MS by examining domain-specific performance and intraindividual variability (IIV). METHODS: 87 PwMS (F = 65, M = 22) completed a comprehensive neuropsychological battery which included self- and informant-report measures of neurocognitive functioning. Scores were examined in relation to mean performance on five domains of cognitive functioning and two measures of IIV. RESULTS: The MSNQ-Self was inversely associated with executive function, verbal memory, and visual memory; it was not associated with IIV. The MSNQ-Informant was inversely associated with executive function and verbal memory, and positively associated with one measure of IIV. The MSNQ-Self showed a correlation of moderate effect size with depression (r = .39) while the MSNQ-Informant did not. CONCLUSIONS: Results suggest that the MSNQ-Self and MSNQ-Informant show similar utility. Our findings also suggest that domains of executive function and memory may be most salient, thus more reflected in subjective reports of cognitive functioning. Future work should further examine the impact of mood disturbance with cognitive performance and IIV.

Avoidant Coping Is Associated with Quality of Life in Persons with Multiple Sclerosis with High Cognitive Reserve.

OBJECTIVE: The goal of this study was to determine the impact of the relationship between cognitive reserve and coping strategy on quality of life (QoL) outcomes in persons with MS (PwMS) across multiple domains. METHODS: We examined the effect of the interactions between coping style and cognitive reserve on QoL and disease burden in 97 persons with MS (PwMS). Coping strategy, either active or avoidant, was measured using the COPE inventory. We defined cognitive reserve as a composite measure of years of education and scores on the Shipley-2 Vocabulary subtest. QoL and disease burden were assessed using the Functional Assessment of MS (FAMS) scale and the Expanded Disability Status Scale, respectively. We examined both the FAMS individual subscales and the overall QoL score. RESULTS: For those with higher cognitive reserve, greater avoidant coping was associated with lower QoL for the thinking and fatigue subscale (p < 0.001) and poorer overall QoL (p = 0.03); greater active coping was associated with poorer QoL for mobility (p = 0.001). However, these associations did not hold for those with lower cognitive reserve. Furthermore, there were no associations between coping strategy and cognitive reserve with disease burden. CONCLUSIONS: This study extends previous findings by demonstrating that avoidant coping, rather than active coping, is associated with poorer thinking and fatigue and overall QoL only for PwMS with greater cognitive reserve. Counseling PwMS on the impact of coping strategies on QoL outcomes, especially for those with greater cognitive reserve, may improve quality of life outcomes in this population.

Coping Style Moderates the Effect of Pain on Depression Symptoms in Multiple Sclerosis.

OBJECTIVE: The present study examined coping style as a possible moderator in the relationship between pain and depression in persons with multiple sclerosis (PwMS). METHODS: Fifty-four PwMS completed a comprehensive neuropsychological test battery and psychosocial questionnaires that assessed physical, cognitive, and emotional functioning. Using four pain indices (i.e., average pain, current pain, pain intensity, and pain interference) from the Brief Pain Inventory (BPI), an overall pain index was created to capture a more comprehensive index of individuals' overall pain intensity and interference. The COPE questionnaire was used to derive three coping indices: active coping, avoidant coping, and a composite cope index that accounts for the relative contributions of both active and avoidant coping. The Beck Depression Inventory-Fast Screen (BDI-FS) was used to measure depressive symptomatology. A series of hierarchical linear regressions were conducted with depressive symptoms as the outcome variable. RESULTS: Regression analyses revealed that the interactions between overall pain and each conceptualization of coping were significant (p = .001-.003). Simple effects tests revealed that overall pain only predicted depressive symptoms in PwMS with low active coping (p < .001), high avoidant coping (p < .001), and less adaptive coping via the composite coping index (p < .001). CONCLUSION: We found that pain predicted depressive symptoms in PwMS who utilized more avoidant and less active coping strategies. Interventions aimed to improve coping style may be effective in enhancing the ability to manage pain and, subsequently, improve depression outcomes in MS.

Innocuous pressure sensation requires A-type afferents but not functional ΡΙΕΖΟ2 channels in humans.

The sensation of pressure allows us to feel sustained compression and body strain. While our understanding of cutaneous touch has grown significantly in recent years, how deep tissue sensations are detected remains less clear. Here, we use quantitative sensory evaluations of patients with rare sensory disorders, as well as nerve blocks in typical individuals, to probe the neural and genetic mechanisms for detecting non-painful pressure. We show that the ability to perceive innocuous pressures is lost when myelinated fiber function is experimentally blocked in healthy volunteers and that two patients lacking Aß fibers are strikingly unable to feel innocuous pressures at all. We find that seven individuals with inherited mutations in the mechanoreceptor PIEZO2 gene, who have major deficits in touch and proprioception, are nearly as good at sensing pressure as healthy control subjects. Together, these data support a role for Aß afferents in pressure sensation and suggest the existence of an unknown molecular pathway for its detection.

Beyond Measures of Central Tendency: Novel Methods to Examine Sex Differences in Neuropsychological Performance Following Sports-Related Concussion in Collegiate Athletes.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to examine sex differences in neuropsychological functioning after sports-related concussion using several approaches to assess cognition: mean performance, number of impaired scores, and intraindividual variability (IIV). METHOD: In the study, 152 concussed college athletes were administered a battery of neuropsychological tests, on average, 10 days post-concussion (SD = 12.75; Mdn = 4 days; Range = 0-72 days). Mean performance was evaluated across 18 individual neuropsychological variables, and the total number of impaired test scores (>1.5 SD below the mean) was calculated for each athlete. Two measures of IIV were also computed: an intraindividual standard deviation (ISD) score and a maximum discrepancy (MD) score. RESULTS: Analyses of covariance revealed that, compared with males, females had significantly more impaired scores and showed greater variability on both IIV indices (ISD and MD scores) after adjusting for time since injury and post-concussive symptoms. In contrast, no significant effects of sex were found when examining mean neuropsychological performance. CONCLUSION: Although females and males demonstrated similar mean performance following concussion, females exhibited a greater level of cognitive impairment and larger inconsistencies in cognitive performance than males. These results suggest that evaluating cognitive indices beyond mean neuropsychological scores may provide valuable information when determining the extent of post-concussion cognitive dysfunction.

Evaluating the test-retest reliability of symptom indices associated with the ImPACT post-concussion symptom scale (PCSS).

OBJECTIVE: The Immediate Post-Concussion Assessment and Cognitive Testing (ImPACT) is a commonly used tool in sports concussion assessment. While test-retest reliabilities have been established for the ImPACT cognitive composites, few studies have evaluated the psychometric properties of the ImPACT's Post-Concussion Symptom Scale (PCSS). The purpose of this study was to establish the test-retest reliability of symptom indices associated with the PCSS. PARTICIPANTS AND METHODS: Participants included 38 undergraduate students (50.0% male) who underwent neuropsychological testing as part of their participation in their psychology department's research subject pool. The majority of the participants were Caucasian (94.7%) and had no history of concussion (73.7%). All participants completed the ImPACT at two time points, approximately 6 weeks apart. The PCSS was the main outcome measure, and eight symptom indices were calculated (a total symptom score, three symptom summary indices, and four symptom clusters). RESULTS: Pearson correlations (r) and intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) were computed as measures of test-retest reliability. Overall, reliabilities ranged from low to high (r = .44 to .80; ICC = .44 to .77). The cognitive symptom cluster exhibited the highest test-retest reliability (r = .80, ICC = .77), followed by the positive symptom total (PST) index, an indicator of the total number of symptoms endorsed (r = .71, ICC = .69). In contrast, the commonly used total symptom score showed lower test-retest reliability (r = .67, ICC = .62). Paired-samples t tests revealed no significant differences between test and retest for any of the symptom variables (all p > .01). Finally, reliable change indices (RCI) were computed to determine whether differences observed between test and retest represented clinically significant change. RCI values were provided for each symptom index at the 80%, 90%, and 95% confidence intervals. CONCLUSION: These results suggest that evaluating additional symptom indices beyond the total symptom score from the PCSS is beneficial. Findings from this study can be applied to athlete samples to assess reliable change in symptoms following concussion.