Investigating wound healing characteristics of gingival and skin keratinocytes in organotypic cultures.

OBJECTIVES: The gingiva heals at an accelerated rate with reduced scarring when compared to skin. Potential well-studied factors include immune cell number, angiogenesis disparities and fibroblast gene expression. Differential keratinocyte gene expression, however, remains relatively understudied. This study explored the contrasting healing efficiencies of gingival and skin keratinocytes, alongside their differential gene expression patterns. METHODS: 3D organotypic culture models of human gingiva and skin were developed using temporarily immortalised primary keratinocytes. Models were wounded for visualisation of re-epithelialisation and analysis of keratinocyte migration to close the wound gap. Concurrently, differentially expressed genes between primary gingival and skin keratinocytes were identified, validated, and functionally assessed. RESULTS: Characterisation of the 3D cultures of gingiva and skin showed differentiation markers that recapitulated organisation of the corresponding in vivo tissue. Upon wounding, gingival models displayed a significantly higher efficiency in re-epithelialisation and stratification versus skin, repopulating the wound gap within 24 hours. This difference was likely due to distinct patterns of migration, with gingival cells demonstrating a form of sheet migration, in contrast to skin, where the leading edge was typically 1-2 cells thick. A candidate approach was used to identify several genes that were differentially expressed between gingival and skin keratinocytes. Knockdown of PITX1 resulted in reduced migration capacity of gingival cells. CONCLUSION: Gingival keratinocytes retain in vivo superior wound healing capabilities in in vitro 2D and 3D environments. Intrinsic gene expression differences could result in gingival cells being 'primed' for healing and play a role in faster wound resolution. CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: The successful development of organotypic models, that recapitulate re-epithelialisation, will underpin further studies to analyse the oral response to wound stimuli, and potential therapeutic interventions, in an in vitro environment.

Characterization of the Growth of Chlamydia trachomatis in In Vitro-Generated Stratified Epithelium.

Chlamydia infection targets the mucosal epithelium, where squamous and columnar epithelia can be found. Research on Chlamydia-epithelia interaction has predominantly focused on columnar epithelia, with very little known on how Chlamydia interacts with the squamous epithelium. The stratification and differentiation processes found in the squamous epithelium might influence chlamydial growth and infection dissemination. For this reason, three-dimensional (3D) organotypic stratified squamous epithelial cultures were adapted to mimic the stratified squamous epithelium and chlamydial infection was characterized. Chlamydia trachomatis infection in monolayers and 3D cultures were monitored by immunofluorescence and transmission electron microscopy to evaluate inclusion growth and chlamydial interconversion between elementary and reticulate body. We observed that the stratified epithelium varied in susceptibility to C. trachomatis serovars L2 and D infection. The undifferentiated basal cells were susceptible to infection by both serovars, while the terminally differentiated upper layers were resistant. The differentiating suprabasal cells exhibited different susceptibilities to serovars L2 and D, with the latter unable to establish a successful infection in this layer. Mature elementary body-containing inclusions were much more prevalent in these permissive basal layers, while the uppermost differentiated layers consistently harbored very few reticulate bodies with no elementary bodies, indicative of severely limited bacterial replication and development. For serovar D, the differentiation state of the host cell was a determining factor, as calcium-induced differentiation of cells in a monolayer negatively affected growth of this serovar, in contrast to serovar L2. The apparent completion of the developmental cycle in the basal layers of the 3D cultures correlated with the greater degree of dissemination within and the level of disruption of the stratified epithelium. Our studies indicate that the squamous epithelium is a suboptimal environment for growth, and thus potentially contributing to the protection of the lower genital tract from infection. The relatively more fastidious serovar D exhibited more limited growth than the faster-growing and more invasive L2 strain. However, if given access to the more hospitable basal cell layer, both strains were able to produce mature inclusions, replicate, and complete their developmental cycle.

Constitutive Autophagy and Nucleophagy during Epidermal Differentiation.

Epidermal keratinocytes migrate through the epidermis up to the granular layer where, on terminal differentiation, they progressively lose organelles and convert into anucleate cells or corneocytes. Our report explores the role of autophagy in ensuring epidermal function providing the first comprehensive profile of autophagy marker expression in developing epidermis. We show that autophagy is constitutively active in the epidermal granular layer where by electron microscopy we identified double-membrane autophagosomes. We demonstrate that differentiating keratinocytes undergo a selective form of nucleophagy characterized by accumulation of microtubule-associated protein light chain 3/lysosomal-associated membrane protein 2/p62 positive autolysosomes. These perinuclear vesicles displayed positivity for histone interacting protein, heterochromatin protein 1α, and localize in proximity with Lamin A and B1 accumulation, whereas in newborn mice and adult human skin, we report LC3 puncta coincident with misshaped nuclei within the granular layer. This process relies on autophagy integrity as confirmed by lack of nucleophagy in differentiating keratinocytes depleted from WD repeat domain phosphoinositide interacting 1 or Unc-51 like autophagy activating kinase 1. Final validation into a skin disease model showed that impaired autophagy contributes to the pathogenesis of psoriasis. Lack of LC3 expression in psoriatic skin lesions correlates with parakeratosis and deregulated expression or location of most of the autophagic markers. Our findings may have implications and improve treatment options for patients with epidermal barrier defects.

Type VI Collagen Regulates Dermal Matrix Assembly and Fibroblast Motility.

Type VI collagen is a nonfibrillar collagen expressed in many connective tissues and implicated in extracellular matrix (ECM) organization. We hypothesized that type VI collagen regulates matrix assembly and cell function within the dermis of the skin. In the present study we examined the expression pattern of type VI collagen in normal and wounded skin and investigated its specific function in new matrix deposition by human dermal fibroblasts. Type VI collagen was expressed throughout the dermis of intact human skin, at the expanding margins of human keloid samples, and in the granulation tissue of newly deposited ECM in a mouse model of wound healing. Generation of cell-derived matrices (CDMs) by human dermal fibroblasts with stable knockdown of COL6A1 revealed that type VI collagen-deficient matrices were significantly thinner and contained more aligned, thicker, and widely spaced fibers than CDMs produced by normal fibroblasts. In addition, there was significantly less total collagen and sulfated proteoglycans present in the type VI collagen-depleted matrices. Normal fibroblasts cultured on de-cellularized CDMs lacking type VI collagen displayed increased cell spreading, migration speed, and persistence. Taken together, these findings indicate that type VI collagen is a key regulator of dermal matrix assembly, composition, and fibroblast behavior and may play an important role in wound healing and tissue regeneration.

Characterizing the phenotype of murine epidermal progenitor cells: complementary whole-mount visualization and flow cytometry strategies.

The epidermis and its appendages, the hair follicle and sebaceous gland, have the capacity to constantly regenerate throughout adult life. Postnatal hair follicles undergo a cyclic mode of tissue homeostasis, defined by periods of growth, degeneration, and rest. A multipotent population of stem cells residing within the hair follicle bulge not only generates the hair lineages during each hair cycle, but also transiently contributes to the repair of epidermis following wounding. In this chapter, we provide methods for identifying epidermal stem cells and investigating their proliferative and apoptotic characteristics. We introduce whole-mount and flow cytometry techniques, which complement each other by permitting visualization of the epidermal stem cell compartment in situ and assessment of the phenotype of purified cells. These techniques can easily be adapted to characterize novel putative epidermal stem or progenitor cell populations. By applying whole-mount and flow cytometry techniques to characterize normal and genetically modified mice with skin defects, we expect to learn more about the factors that regulate stem cell self-renewal and differentiation.

iASPP/p63 autoregulatory feedback loop is required for the homeostasis of stratified epithelia.

iASPP, an inhibitory member of the ASPP (apoptosis stimulating protein of p53) family, is an evolutionarily conserved inhibitor of p53 which is frequently upregulated in human cancers. However, little is known about the role of iASPP under physiological conditions. Here, we report that iASPP is a critical regulator of epithelial development. We demonstrate a novel autoregulatory feedback loop which controls crucial physiological activities by linking iASPP to p63, via two previously unreported microRNAs, miR-574-3p and miR-720. By investigating its function in stratified epithelia, we show that iASPP participates in the p63-mediated epithelial integrity program by regulating the expression of genes essential for cell adhesion. Silencing of iASPP in keratinocytes by RNA interference promotes and accelerates a differentiation pathway, which also affects and slowdown cellular proliferation. Taken together, these data reveal iASPP as a key regulator of epithelial homeostasis.

Rac1 deletion causes thymic atrophy.

The thymic stroma supports T lymphocyte development and consists of an epithelium maintained by thymic epithelial progenitors. The molecular pathways that govern epithelial homeostasis are poorly understood. Here we demonstrate that deletion of Rac1 in Keratin 5/Keratin 14 expressing embryonic and adult thymic epithelial cells leads to loss of the thymic epithelial compartment. Rac1 deletion led to an increase in c-Myc expression and a generalized increase in apoptosis associated with a decrease in thymic epithelial proliferation. Our results suggest Rac1 maintains the epithelial population, and equilibrium between Rac1 and c-Myc may control proliferation, apoptosis and maturation of the thymic epithelial compartment. Understanding thymic epithelial maintenance is a step toward the dual goals of in vitro thymic epithelial cell culture and T cell differentiation, and the clinical repair of thymic damage from graft-versus-host-disease, chemotherapy or irradiation.

Functional characterization of highly adherent CD34+ keratinocytes isolated from human skin.

Compared to murine models, data on cells responsible for the homeostasis of human epidermis are scarce and often contradictory. Given the conflicting results and the availability of clinical grade protocols to purify CD34 cells from a given tissue, we pursued to phenotypically characterize human epidermal CD34+ population. After magnetic separation of whole skin CD34+ and CD34- cell fractions and selection for cells highly adherent to extracellular matrix, both CD34+/- fractions retained the ability to form a stratified epidermis in organotypic cultures and presented similar in vitro migratory phenotypes. However CD34- cells showed higher clonogenic potential and in vitro proliferative capacity. These results indicated that CD34- cell fraction contains stem/early progenitor cells, while CD34+ cells might be a transit-amplifying precursor for hair follicle (HF) sheath cells. The ability to isolate living cells using differential cell adhesion and surface markers provides an opportunity to study cells from different morphological regions of the HF.

Cutaneous cancer stem cells: beta-catenin strikes again.

Cancer stem cells (CSCs) are a subpopulation of tumor cells that retain properties of tissue-specific stem cells, including the ability to self-renew. In a recent article in Nature, Malanchi et al. (2008) identified a population of CD34(+) cells in epidermal tumors that require beta-catenin signaling to maintain a CSC phenotype.

Characterization of bipotential epidermal progenitors derived from human sebaceous gland: contrasting roles of c-Myc and beta-catenin.

The current belief is that the epidermal sebaceous gland (SG) is maintained by unipotent stem cells that are replenished by multipotent stem cells in the hair follicle (HF) bulge. However, sebocytes can be induced by c-Myc (Myc) activation in interfollicular epidermis (IFE), suggesting the existence of bipotential stem cells. We found that every SZ95 immortalized human sebocyte that underwent clonal growth in culture generated progeny that differentiated into both sebocytes and cells expressing involucrin and cornifin, markers of IFE and HF inner root sheath differentiation. The ability to generate involucrin positive cells was also observed in a new human sebocyte line, Seb-E6E7. SZ95 xenografts differentiated into SG and IFE but not HF. SZ95 cells that expressed involucrin had reduced Myc levels; however, this did not correlate with increased expression of the Myc repressor Blimp1, and Blimp1 expression did not distinguish cells undergoing SG, IFE, or HF differentiation in vivo. Overexpression of Myc stimulated sebocyte differentiation, whereas overexpression of beta-catenin stimulated involucrin and cornifin expression. In transgenic mice simultaneous activation of Myc and beta-catenin revealed mutual antagonism: Myc blocked ectopic HF formation and beta-catenin reduced SG differentiation. Overexpression of the Myc target gene Indian hedgehog did not promote sebocyte differentiation in culture and cyclopamine treatment, while reducing proliferation, did not block Myc induced sebocyte differentiation in vivo. Our studies provide evidence for a bipotential epidermal stem cell population in an in vitro model of human epidermal lineage selection and highlight the importance of Myc as a regulator of sebocyte differentiation.

The cell-surface marker MTS24 identifies a novel population of follicular keratinocytes with characteristics of progenitor cells.

We describe a novel murine progenitor cell population localised to a previously uncharacterised region between sebaceous glands and the hair follicle bulge, defined by its reactivity to the thymic epithelial progenitor cell marker MTS24. MTS24 labels a membrane-bound antigen present during the early stages of hair follicle development and in adult mice. MTS24 co-localises with expression of alpha6-integrin and keratin 14, indicating that these cells include basal keratinocytes. This novel population does not express the bulge-specific stem cell markers CD34 or keratin 15, and is infrequently BrdU label retaining. MTS24-positive and -negative keratinocyte populations were isolated by flow cytometry and assessed for colony-forming efficiency. MTS24-positive keratinocytes exhibited a two-fold increase in colony formation and colony size compared to MTS24-negative basal keratinocytes. In addition, both the MTS24-positive and CD34-positive subpopulations were capable of producing secondary colonies after serial passage of individual cell clones. Finally, gene expression profiles of MTS24 and CD34 subpopulations were compared. These results showed that the overall gene expression profile of MTS24-positive cells resembles the pattern previously reported in bulge stem cells. Taken together, these data suggest that the cell-surface marker MTS24 identifies a new reservoir of hair follicle keratinocytes with a proliferative capacity and gene expression profile suggestive of progenitor or stem cells.

Distinct epidermal stem cell compartments are maintained by independent niche microenvironments.

The mammalian epidermis is a stratified, multilayered epithelium, consisting of the interfollicular epidermis and associated appendages, which extend into the dermis and include hair follicles, sebaceous glands, and sweat glands. Stem cells are essential for the maintenance of this tissue and are also potential sources of multipotent adult precursor cells. Stem cell populations occupying specific locations or niches have been identified in the interfollicular epidermis, the hair follicle and the sebaceous gland. Recent research has focused on how the stem cell niches provide specific sites where stem cells can reside indefinitely and undergo self-renewal or differentiation into specific cell lineages, as required for epidermal replenishment or hair follicle growth.

Beta-catenin and Hedgehog signal strength can specify number and location of hair follicles in adult epidermis without recruitment of bulge stem cells.

Using K14deltaNbeta-cateninER transgenic mice, we show that short-term, low-level beta-catenin activation stimulates de novo hair follicle formation from sebaceous glands and interfollicular epidermis, while only sustained, high-level activation induces new follicles from preexisting follicles. The Hedgehog pathway is upregulated by beta-catenin activation, and inhibition of Hedgehog signaling converts the low beta-catenin phenotype to wild-type epidermis and the high phenotype to low. beta-catenin-induced follicles contain clonogenic keratinocytes that express bulge markers; the follicles induce dermal papillae and provide a niche for melanocytes, and they undergo 4OHT-dependent cycles of growth and regression. New follicles induced in interfollicular epidermis are derived from that cellular compartment and not through bulge stem cell migration or division. These results demonstrate the remarkable capacity of adult epidermis to be reprogrammed by titrating beta-catenin and Hedgehog signal strength and establish that cells from interfollicular epidermis can acquire certain characteristics of bulge stem cells.

Bone marrow cells engraft within the epidermis and proliferate in vivo with no evidence of cell fusion.

In adults, bone marrow-derived cells (BMDC) can contribute to the structure of various non-haematopoietic tissues, including skin. However, the physiological importance of these cells is unclear. This study establishes that bone marrow-derived epidermal cells are proliferative and, moreover, demonstrates for the first time that BMDC can localize to a known stem cell niche: the CD34-positive bulge region of mouse hair follicles. In addition, engraftment of bone marrow cells into the epidermis is significantly increased in wounded skin, bone marrow-derived keratinocytes can form colonies in the regenerating epidermis in vivo, and the colony-forming capacity of these cells can be recapitulated in vitro. In some tissues this apparent plasticity is attributed to differentiation, and in others to cell fusion. Evidence is also provided that bone marrow cells form epidermal keratinocytes without undergoing cell fusion. These data suggest a functional role for bone marrow cells in epidermal regeneration, entering known epidermal stem cell niches without heterokaryon formation.

Epidermal label-retaining cells: background and recent applications.

Epidermal label-retaining cells (LRC) can be identified by giving neonatal mice repeated injections of 3H-thymidine or 5-bromo-2'-deoxyuridine and then finding the cells that are still labelled in adulthood. Although label retention is simply a marker of the proliferative history of a cell, there is, nevertheless, evidence that it is a characteristic of epidermal stem cells. Here we review the early literature on LRC and then highlight two recent applications. We describe how LRC can be visualized by whole-mount labelling of the epidermis and how purified LRC can be used to screen for markers of the epidermal stem cell compartment.

Manipulation of stem cell proliferation and lineage commitment: visualisation of label-retaining cells in wholemounts of mouse epidermis.

Mammalian epidermis is maintained by stem cells that have the ability to self-renew and generate daughter cells that differentiate along the lineages of the hair follicles, interfollicular epidermis and sebaceous gland. As stem cells divide infrequently in adult mouse epidermis, they can be visualised as DNA label-retaining cells (LRC). With whole-mount labelling, we can examine large areas of interfollicular epidermis and many hair follicles simultaneously, enabling us to evaluate stem cell markers and examine the effects of different stimuli on the LRC population. LRC are not confined to the hair follicle, but also lie in sebaceous glands and interfollicular epidermis. LRC reside throughout the permanent region of the hair follicle, where they express keratin 15 and lie in a region of high alpha6beta4 integrin expression. LRC are not significantly depleted by successive hair growth cycles. They can, nevertheless, be stimulated to divide by treatment with phorbol ester, resulting in near complete loss of LRC within 12 days. Activation of Myc stimulates epidermal proliferation without depleting LRC and induces differentiation of sebocytes within the interfollicular epidermis. Expression of N-terminally truncated Lef1 to block beta-catenin signalling induces transdifferentiation of hair follicles into interfollicular epidermis and sebocytes and causes loss of LRC primarily through proliferation. We conclude that LRC are more sensitive to some proliferative stimuli than others and that changes in lineage can occur with or without recruitment of LRC into cycle.

Hepatic microenvironment affects oval cell localization in albumin-urokinase-type plasminogen activator transgenic mice.

Mice carrying an albumin-urokinase type plasminogen activator transgene (AL-uPA) develop liver disease secondary to uPA expression in hepatocytes. Transgene-expressing parenchyma is replaced gradually by clones of cells that have deleted transgene DNA and therefore are not subject to uPA-mediated damage. Diseased liver displays several abnormalities, including hepatocyte vacuolation and changes in nonparenchymal tissue. The latter includes increases in laminin protein within parenchyma and the appearance of cytokeratin 19-positive bile ductule-like cells (oval cells) both in portal regions and extending into the hepatic parenchyma. In this study, we subjected AL-uPA mice to two-thirds partial hepatectomy to identify the response of these livers to additional growth stimulation. We observed several changes in hepatic morphology. First, the oval cells increased in number and often formed ductules in the parenchyma. Second, this cellular change was accompanied by a further increase in laminin associated with single or clusters of oval cells. Third, desmin-positive Ito cells increased in number and maintained close association with oval cells. Fourth, these changes were localized precisely to uPA-expressing areas of liver. Regenerating clones of uPA-deficient cells appeared to be unaffected both by stromal and cellular alterations. Thus, additional growth stimulation of diseased uPA-expressing liver induces an oval cell-like response, as observed in other models of severe hepatic injury, but the localization of this response seems to be highly regulated by the hepatic microenvironment.