Eyes Fixed on Heaven's Gate: An Empirical Examination of Blink Rate and Suicide.

Anecdotal and theoretical work suggests blink rate as an indicator of imminent suicide risk. We sought to empirically examine whether suicide decedents displayed a reduced blink rate in goodbye videos filmed before death, compared to several control groups. Independent raters coded blink rates from videos of 34 suicide decedents and four comparison groups: "mundane" product review, non-suicidal arousal, non-suicidal depression, and non-imminent risk of suicidal ideation. Mean blink rate was lower in the suicide decedent group relative to all comparison groups (ps < .001), except the depressed (p = .976) and suicidal ideation (p = .393) groups. Findings indicate blink rate may be reduced among individuals at imminent risk for suicide, exhibiting clinically-significant depressive symptoms, or experiencing suicidal ideation.

Military Suicide Research Consortium common data elements: Bifactor analysis and longitudinal predictive ability of suicidal ideation and suicide attempts within a clinical sample.

To enhance and standardize the assessment of suicidal self-directed violence (SDV) in military populations, the Military Suicide Research Consortium developed the Common Data Elements (CDEs). Previous research supported the CDEs as assessing a higher-order factor of suicidal SDV in military populations. The present study had two aims: 1) confirm the bifactor structure of the CDEs in a high-risk sample, and 2) assess the ability of the factorially derived suicidal SDV factor to predict suicide attempts and return to care for suicidal ideation over 3-month follow-up. Utilizing a sample of service members referred for a psychiatric evaluation (N = 1,044), the CDE structure was assessed with confirmatory bifactor modeling. Logistic regressions and receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analyses were used to assess the suicidal SDV risk factor's prediction of suicide attempts and return to care for suicidal ideation during follow-up (n = 758). Bifactor modeling suggested adequate fit for the overarching suicidal SDV risk factor. Logistic regressions supported the overarching suicidal SDV risk factor as a predictor of suicide attempts (OR = 4.07, p < .001) and return to care for suicidal ideation (OR = 2.81, p < .001) over follow-up. However, ROC analyses suggested that the model including the suicidal SDV risk factor was only significantly better at classifying suicide attempts over follow-up (not return to care for suicidal ideation) than the model that did not include it (AUC difference = 0.15, p < .001). Findings suggest that the shared variance assessed across CDEs better predicts future suicide attempts beyond any individual suicide-related constructs. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Reducing anticipated non-suicidal self-injury by improving body esteem in individuals with weight suppression: A proof of concept study.

OBJECTIVE: Research suggests that weight suppression (WS) is linked to non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) and that drive for thinness and depression may explain this association. We conducted a proof-of-concept study using a randomized control trial design to determine if improving body esteem and reducing depressive symptoms reduced NSSI in individuals with WS. METHOD: Weight suppressed participants (N = 60) who engaged in NSSI were recruited from the community and randomly assigned to an on-line intervention or control condition. The on-line intervention was adapted from a cognitive-dissonance intervention originally designed to reduce thin-ideal internalization in females to an intervention to reduce internalization of unhealthy body ideals in both genders. Participants' weight/shape concerns, depressive symptoms, and NSSI were assessed at pre- and post-intervention, or at baseline and 2-week follow-up for controls. RESULTS: Compared to controls, participants in the treatment condition reported greater decreases in likelihood of future NSSI [Cohen's d (95% CI) = -0.38 (-0.90-0.15)], weight/shape concerns [-1.19 (-1.75 to -0.62)], depressive symptoms [-1.00 (-1.56 to -0.45)], and significant improvements in appearance [1.27 (0.70-1.84)] and weight esteem [1.38 (0.80-1.96)]. DISCUSSION: Future work could test this intervention in a larger trial with an active alternative treatment condition.

Exercise dependence: Associations with capability for suicide and past suicidal behavior.

OBJECTIVE: Exercise dependence has been linked to capability for suicide and suicidal behavior; however, less understood are which facets of exercise dependence confer risk for suicidal behavior and the potential mechanisms of this association. This study examined relationships between exercise dependence, capability for suicide, and past suicidal behavior. METHODS: A sample of 540 individuals recruited via MTurk completed online measures of their exercise dependence, capability for suicide, and history of suicidal behavior. RESULTS: Suicide attempters reported higher levels of continuance in exercise despite physical or psychological consequences, lack of control over exercise, and reductions in other activities due to exercise than nonattempters. Capability for suicide accounted for the relationship between continuance in exercise despite adverse consequences and lifetime number of suicide attempts. CONCLUSIONS: When exercise becomes pathological in the form of exercise dependence, steps should be taken to reduce such engagement due to its observed association with suicidal behavior.

The Military Suicide Research Consortium Common Data Elements: An Examination of Measurement Invariance Across Current Service Members and Veterans.

Suicide rates within the U.S. military are elevated, necessitating greater efforts to identify those at increased risk. This study utilized a multigroup confirmatory factor analysis to examine measurement invariance of the Military Suicide Research Consortium Common Data Elements (CDEs) across current service members (n = 2,015), younger veterans (<35 years; n = 377), and older veterans (≥35 years; n = 1,001). Strong factorial invariance was supported with adequate model fit observed for current service members, younger veterans, and older veterans. The structures of all models were generally comparable with few exceptions. The Military Suicide Research Consortium CDEs demonstrate at least adequate model fit for current military service members and veterans, regardless of age. Thus, the CDEs can be validly used across military and veteran populations. Given similar latent structures, research findings in one group may inform clinical and policy decision making for the other.

Examining the link between weight suppression and non-suicidal self-injurious behaviors.

BACKGROUND: Given the negative consequences of excess weight, a large portion of the US population is seeking to obtain and maintain weight loss. Weight Suppression (WS) represents the difference between previous highest adult weight and current weight and may have negative psychological consequences. The current study examined the link between WS and lifetime non-suicidal self-injurious (NSSI) behavior and explored indirect effects in this link using survey data in two large samples. METHODS: Sample 1 included 1011 college students (67% female, mean age = 19 years); Sample 2 included 2461 participants from an epidemiological study (68% female, mean age = 34 years). Models of direct and indirect effects were tested in MPlus using bootstrapping. RESULTS: As hypothesized, greater WS was associated with increased likelihood of lifetime NSSI in both samples (OR = 1.05 and 1.02). In both samples, significant indirect effects of drive for thinness (Total R2 = 0.06 and 0.09) and depressive symptoms (Total R2 = 0.13 and 0.29) accounted for this association. Alternative models in which the indirect effect of WS was tested in associations between drive for thinness or depressive symptoms and NSSI were not supported. CONCLUSION: Results suggest that the link between WS and lifetime NSSI may be accounted for by eating or mood-related pathology. Future research should test whether addressing associated eating and mood problems would eliminate the link between WS and NSSI as a means for reducing suicide risk.

Problematic alcohol use and suicidal ideation among firefighters: A multi-study investigation of the explanatory roles of perceived burdensomeness and thwarted belongingness.

BACKGROUND: Firefighters are at increased risk for both problematic alcohol use and suicidality. Research has found that problematic alcohol use is related to suicidality among this population; however, limited data exist regarding what might account for this association. The present two-study investigation (1) examined the association between suicidality and problematic alcohol use among two large samples of firefighters and (2) tested whether interpersonal theory of suicide constructs-perceived burdensomeness (PB) and thwarted belongingness (TB)-serve as indirect indicators of this relationship. METHODS: Participants in Study 1 were 944 U.S. firefighters (12.5% female); participants in Study 2 were 241 U.S. women firefighters. Participants completed the Interpersonal Needs Questionnaire, Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test, and the Depressive Symptom Inventory-Suicidality Subscale (Study 1) or the Self-Injurious Thoughts and Behaviors Interview-Short Form (Study 2). Bias-corrected bootstrap indirect effects path analyses were utilized. RESULTS: In Study 1, more problematic alcohol use was significantly associated with more severe career suicidal ideation via PB but not TB. In Study 2, problematic alcohol use was associated with career suicidal ideation via both PB and TB. PB seems to account for the relationship between problematic alcohol use and career suicidal ideation among male and female firefighters. LIMITATIONS: Limitations include use of a cross-sectional design, use of retrospective measures of suicidal ideation, and our findings derived from subsamples of two existing datasets. CONCLUSIONS: Findings suggest that PB and TB may explain the relationship between problematic alcohol use and suicidal ideation, but that this effect is discrepant based on gender.

The interpersonal theory of suicide: A systematic review and meta-analysis of a decade of cross-national research.

Over the past decade, the interpersonal theory of suicide has contributed to substantial advances in the scientific and clinical understanding of suicide and related conditions. The interpersonal theory of suicide posits that suicidal desire emerges when individuals experience intractable feelings of perceived burdensomeness and thwarted belongingness and near-lethal or lethal suicidal behavior occurs in the presence of suicidal desire and capability for suicide. A growing number of studies have tested these posited pathways in various samples; however, these findings have yet to be evaluated meta-analytically. This paper aimed to (a) conduct a systematic review of the unpublished and published, peer-reviewed literature examining the relationship between interpersonal theory constructs and suicidal thoughts and behaviors, (b) conduct meta-analyses testing the interpersonal theory hypotheses, and (c) evaluate the influence of various moderators on these relationships. Four electronic bibliographic databases were searched through the end of March, 2016: PubMed, Medline, PsycINFO, and Web of Science. Hypothesis-driven meta-analyses using random effects models were conducted using 122 distinct unpublished and published samples. Findings supported the interpersonal theory: the interaction between thwarted belongingness and perceived burdensomeness was significantly associated with suicidal ideation; and the interaction between thwarted belongingness, perceived burdensomeness, and capability for suicide was significantly related to a greater number of prior suicide attempts. However, effect sizes for these interactions were modest. Alternative configurations of theory variables were similarly useful for predicting suicide risk as theory-consistent pathways. We conclude with limitations and recommendations for the interpersonal theory as a framework for understanding the suicidal spectrum. (PsycINFO Database Record

The role of stressful life events preceding death by suicide: Evidence from two samples of suicide decedents.

Stressful life events (SLEs) are associated with increased risk for suicidal behavior. Less is known regarding the intensity of SLEs and how this may vary as a function of suicide attempt history. As a large percentage of suicide decedents do not have a history of suicidal behavior, SLEs precipitating suicide may help characterize suicidality in this understudied population. This paper examines the intensity, number, and accumulation of SLEs preceding death by suicide among decedents with varying suicide attempt histories. Suicide attempts, SLEs, and suicide methods were examined in two samples: 62 prison-based and 117 community-based suicide decedents. Regression was used to compare the level of stressor precipitating death by suicide in decedents who died on a first attempt versus multiple previous attempts. A non-significant trend was observed in the prison population which was supported by significant findings in the community-based sample. Decedents who died on a first attempt experienced a stressor of a lower magnitude when compared to decedents with multiple previous suicide attempts. We discuss the implications of these findings in relation to the stress-diathesis model for suicide.

Do Undiagnosed Suicide Decedents Have Symptoms of a Mental Disorder?

BACKGROUND: Psychological autopsy studies consistently report that the rate of detected mental disorders among suicide decedents is below 100%. This implies three possibilities: (a) a subset of suicide decedents did not have a mental disorder at the time of death; (b) all suicide decedents suffered from a mental disorder, but some were undetected due to methodological limitations; and/or (c) suicide decedents with an undetected mental disorder displayed significant and perhaps subclinical features of a mental disorder. OBJECTIVE: In this article, we examined these possibilities by evaluating the differences in symptoms and stressors between suicide decedents who were undiagnosed and those diagnosed with a mental disorder at the time of death. METHOD: We reviewed 130 case studies of community-based suicide decedents originally described in Robins' (1981) psychological autopsy study. RESULTS: Without exception, suicide decedents in Robins' sample suffered either from a clearly diagnosable mental disorder or displayed features indicative of a significant, even if subclinical, presentation of a mental disorder. Undiagnosed and diagnosed suicide decedents did not significantly differ with regards to demographics, violence of suicide method, suicide attempt history, the number and intensity of stressful life events preceding death, and whether their death was a murder-suicide. CONCLUSION: Although clearly not all who suffer from mental disorders will die by suicide, these findings imply that all who die by suicide appear to exhibit, at minimum, subclinical psychiatric symptoms with the great majority showing prominent clinical symptoms. We conclude with clinical implications and recommendations for future study.

Investigating insomnia as a cross-sectional and longitudinal predictor of loneliness: Findings from six samples.

Loneliness has been repeatedly associated with sleep problems; however, there is a dearth of research examining the prospective relationship between insomnia and loneliness, as well as this association controlling for other psychiatric symptoms. This study evaluated the cross-sectional and prospective relationship between insomnia and loneliness using six samples: 666 undergraduates; 2785 Army recruiters; 208 adults with a history of suicidality and/or depression; 343 adult psychiatric outpatients; 326 young adults at elevated suicide risk; and 183 undergraduates. A meta-analysis also was conducted to examine the magnitude of the relationship between insomnia and loneliness across the six studies. More severe insomnia symptoms were significantly associated with greater feelings of loneliness while accounting for some (e.g., anxiety, nightmares) but not all (i.e., depression) psychiatric covariates. Findings underscore the strength of the association between insomnia and loneliness and suggest that depression may account for this relationship. Additional studies are needed to further establish the temporal relationship between these variables, delineate the role of depression in the association between insomnia and loneliness, and test whether insomnia may confer unique risk for subsequent loneliness.

Personality Disorder Symptoms and Suicidality: Low Desire and High Plans for Suicide in Military Inpatients and Outpatients.

This study characterizes the personality disorder (PD) symptoms of patients who endorse a perplexing combination of low desire and high plans for suicide. Five PD (antisocial, narcissistic, borderline, dependent, avoidant) symptoms were examined at the junction of two suicide risk factors: (a) suicidal desire/ideation and (b) resolved plans/preparations. Participants (N = 250) were recruited from U.S. Army Medical Center affiliated sites, including two outpatient clinics, an inpatient facility, and an emergency room. Self-report measures of PD and suicide symptoms were administered. The interaction of desire and plans was entered into multiple regression equations predicting PD symptoms. Patients endorsing low desire and high plans for suicide reported significantly more antisocial and narcissistic symptoms and fewer borderline, avoidant, and dependent PD symptoms. These findings support the existence of patients who endorse suicide plans in the absence of strong suicidal desire and suggest that they display antisocial and narcissistic personality characteristics. Future directions and clinical implications are discussed.

Trait liabilities and specific promotive processes in psychopathology: The example of suicidal behavior.

BACKGROUND: The RDoC matrix framework calls for investigation of mental health problems through analysis of core biobehavioral processes quantified and studied across multiple domains of measurement. Critics have raised concerns about RDoC, including overemphasis on biological concepts/measures and disregard for the principle of multifinality, which holds that identical biological predispositions can give rise to differing behavioral outcomes. The current work illustrates an ontogenetic process approach to addressing these concerns, focusing on biobehavioral traits corresponding to RDoC constructs as predictors, and suicidal behavior as the outcome variable. METHOD: Data were collected from a young adult sample (N=105), preselected to enhance rates of suicidality. Participants completed self-report measures of traits (threat sensitivity, response inhibition) and suicide-specific processes. RESULTS: We show that previously reported associations for traits of threat sensitivity and weak inhibitory control with suicidal behavior are mediated by more specific suicide-promoting processes-namely, thwarted belongingness, perceived burdensomeness, and capability for suicide. LIMITATIONS: The sample was relatively small and the data were cross-sectional, limiting conclusions that can be drawn from the mediation analyses. CONCLUSIONS: Given prior research documenting neurophysiological as well as psychological bases to these trait dispositions, the current work sets the stage for an intensive RDoC-oriented investigation of suicidal tendencies in which both traits and suicide-promoting processes are quantified using indicators from different domains of measurement. More broadly, this work illustrates how an RDoC research approach can contribute to a nuanced understanding of specific clinical problems, through consideration of how general biobehavioral liabilities interface with distinct problem-promoting processes.

Insomnia brings soldiers into mental health treatment, predicts treatment engagement, and outperforms other suicide-related symptoms as a predictor of major depressive episodes.

Given the high rates of suicide among military personnel and the need to characterize suicide risk factors associated with mental health service use, this study aimed to identify suicide-relevant factors that predict: (1) treatment engagement and treatment adherence, and (2) suicide attempts, suicidal ideation, and major depressive episodes in a military sample. Army recruiters (N = 2596) completed a battery of self-report measures upon study enrollment. Eighteen months later, information regarding suicide attempts, suicidal ideation, major depressive episodes, and mental health visits were obtained from participants' military medical records. Suicide attempts and suicidal ideation were very rare in this sample; negative binomial regression analyses with robust estimation were used to assess correlates and predictors of mental health treatment visits and major depressive episodes. More severe insomnia and agitation were significantly associated with mental health visits at baseline and over the 18-month study period. In contrast, suicide-specific hopelessness was significantly associated with fewer mental health visits. Insomnia severity was the only significant predictor of major depressive episodes. Findings suggest that assessment of sleep problems might be useful in identifying at-risk military service members who may engage in mental health treatment. Additional research is warranted to examine the predictive validity of these suicide-related symptom measures in a more representative, higher suicide risk military sample.

A test of the interpersonal theory of suicide in a large sample of current firefighters.

Recent research suggests that firefighters experience elevated rates of suicidal ideation and behaviors. The interpersonal theory of suicide may shed light on this finding. This theory postulates that suicidal desire is strongest among individuals experiencing perceived burdensomeness and thwarted belongingness, and that the combination of suicide desire and acquired capability for suicide is necessary for the development of suicidal behaviors. We tested the propositions of the interpersonal theory in a large sample of current United States firefighters (N=863). Participants completed self-report measures of perceived burdensomeness, thwarted belongingness, fearlessness about death (FAD; a component of acquired capability), and career suicidal ideation and suicide attempt history. Regression models were used to examine the association between interpersonal theory constructs, career suicidal ideation severity, and the presence of career suicide attempts. In line with theory predictions, the three-way interaction between perceived burdensomeness, thwarted belongingness, and FAD was significantly associated with career suicide attempts, beyond participant sex. However, findings were no longer significant after accounting for years of firefighter service or age. Contrary to predictions, the two-way interaction between perceived burdensomeness and thwarted belongingness was not significantly related to career suicidal ideation severity. Applications of the theory to firefighters and future research are discussed.

"Do unto others"? Distinct psychopathy facets predict reduced perception and tolerance of pain.

Recent research has sought to understand how individuals high in psychopathic traits perceive pain in others (Decety, Skelly, & Kiehl, 2013; Marsh et al., 2013). Perception of pain in others is presumed to act as a prosocial signal, and underreactivity to others' pain may contribute to engagement in exploitative-aggressive behaviors among individuals high in psychopathic traits (Jackson, Meltzoff, & Decety, 2005). The current study tested for associations between facets of psychopathy as defined by the triarchic model (Patrick, Fowles, & Krueger, 2009) and decreased sensitivity to pain in 105 undergraduates tested in a laboratory pain assessment. A pressure algometer was used to index pain tolerance, and participants also rated their perceptions of and reactivity to the algometer-induced pain during the assessment and again 3 days later. A unique positive relationship was found between pain tolerance and the meanness facet of psychopathy, which also predicted reduced fear of painful algometer stimulation. Other psychopathy facets (boldness, disinhibition) showed negative relations with fear of pain stimulation during testing and at follow-up. Findings from this study extend the nomological network surrounding callousness (meanness) and suggest that increased pain tolerance may be a mechanism contributing to insensitivity to expressions of discomfort in others. (PsycINFO Database Record

Thwarted Belongingness Mediates the Relationship between Fear of Negative Evaluation and Suicidal Ideation.

Fear of negative evaluation has been documented as a mechanism that explains variations in feelings of belongingness. According to the interpersonal theory of suicide (Joiner, 2005), feelings of thwarted belongingness, that one does not belong, can significantly increase desire and risk for suicide. We proposed that differences in thwarted belongingness may explain variations in suicidal ideation and behavior as a function of levels of fear of negative evaluation. This hypothesis was tested by examining self-reported fears of negative evaluation, thwarted belongingness, and suicidal ideation in 107 young adults, many who were explicitly targeted for recruitment due to a history of suicidal ideation and behavior (13.1% had thoughts about suicide without a previous attempt; 15.9% reported at least one previous attempt [max = 5 attempts]). Mediation analyses were conducted with suicidal ideation entered as the outcome variable. Results indicated that greater fears of negative evaluation were significantly and positively associated with levels of suicidal ideation. Differences in thwarted belongingness fully accounted for the relationship between fears of negative evaluation and suicidal ideation. We conclude with clinical implications and future directions.

The medical complications associated with purging.

OBJECTIVE: Purging behaviors, including self-induced vomiting, laxative abuse, and diuretic abuse, are present across many of the eating disorders. Here we review the major medical complications of these behaviors. METHOD: Although we identified over 100 scholarly articles describing medical complications associated with purging, most papers involved case studies or small, uncontrolled samples. Given the limited evidence base, we conducted a qualitative (rather than systematic) review to identify medical complications that have been attributed to purging behaviors. RESULTS: Medical conditions affecting the teeth, esophagus, gastrointestinal system, kidneys, skin, cardiovascular system, and musculoskeletal system were identified, with self-induced vomiting causing the most medical complications. DISCUSSION: Purging behavior can be associated with severe medical complications across all body systems. Mental health professionals should refer patients with purging behaviors to medical providers for screening and treatment as needed. The medical work-up for individuals with eating disorders should include a comprehensive metabolic panel, complete blood count, and a full body exam including the teeth to prevent severe complications. Medical providers should screen patients for purging behaviors and associated medical complications, even in the absence of an eating disorder diagnosis, to increase the detection of eating disorders. Recognizing the link between purging and medical complications can aid in identifying potential eating disorders, particularly those that often elude detection such as purging disorder.