Proteomic analysis distinguishes extracellular vesicles produced by cancerous versus healthy pancreatic organoids.

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are produced and released by both healthy and malignant cells and bear markers indicative of ongoing biological processes. In the present study we utilized high resolution flow cytometry to detect EVs in the plasma of patients with pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) and in the supernatants of PDAC and healthy control (HC) pancreatic organoid cultures. Using ultrafiltration and size exclusion chromatography, PDAC and HC pancreatic organoid EVs were isolated for mass spectrometry analysis. Proteomic and functional protein network analysis showed a striking distinction in that EV proteins profiled in pancreatic cancer organoids were involved in vesicular transport and tumorigenesis while EV proteins in healthy organoids were involved in cellular homeostasis. Thus, the most abundant proteins identified in either case represented non-overlapping cellular programs. Tumor-promoting candidates LAMA5, SDCBP and TENA were consistently upregulated in PDAC EVs. Validation of specific markers for PDAC EVs versus healthy pancreatic EVs will provide the biomarkers and enhanced sensitivity necessary to monitor early disease or disease progression, with or without treatment. Moreover, disease-associated changes in EV protein profiles provide an opportunity to investigate alterations in cellular programming with disease progression.

Circulating myeloid cells invade the central nervous system to mediate cachexia during pancreatic cancer.

Weight loss and anorexia are common symptoms in cancer patients that occur prior to initiation of cancer therapy. Inflammation in the brain is a driver of these symptoms, yet cellular sources of neuroinflammation during malignancy are unknown. In a mouse model of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC), we observed early and robust myeloid cell infiltration into the brain. Infiltrating immune cells were predominately neutrophils, which accumulated at a unique central nervous system entry portal called the velum interpositum, where they expressed CCR2. Pharmacologic CCR2 blockade and genetic deletion of Ccr2 both resulted in significantly decreased brain-infiltrating myeloid cells as well as attenuated cachexia during PDAC. Lastly, intracerebroventricular blockade of the purinergic receptor P2RX7 during PDAC abolished immune cell recruitment to the brain and attenuated anorexia. Our data demonstrate a novel function for the CCR2/CCL2 axis in recruiting neutrophils to the brain, which drives anorexia and muscle catabolism.

Weight loss, decreased appetite and fatigue are symptoms of a wasting disorder known as cachexia, which is common in several serious diseases such as AIDS, chronic lung disease and heart failure. Up to 80 percent of people with advanced cancer also develop cachexia, and there are no effective treatments. It is not known how cachexia develops, but symptoms like appetite loss and fatigue are controlled by the brain. One theory is that the brain may be responding to a malfunctioning immune response that causes inflammation. While the brain was thought to be protected from this, new research has shown that it is possible for cells from the immune system to reach the brain in some conditions. To find out if this also happens in cancer, Burfeind et al. studied mice that had been implanted with pancreatic cancer cells and were showing signs of cachexia. Samples from the mice's brains showed that immune cells known as neutrophils were present and active. A protein known as CCR2 was found in higher levels in the brains of these mice. This protein is involved in the movement of neutrophil cells through the body. To see what effect this protein had, Burfeind et al. gave the mice a drug that blocks CCR2. This prevented the neutrophils from entering the brain and reduced the symptoms of cachexia in the mice. To further confirm the role of CCR2, the mice were genetically modified so that they could not produce the protein. This reduced the number of neutrophils seen in the brain but not in the rest of the body. This suggests that a drug targeting CCR2 could help to reduce the symptoms of cachexia, without disrupting the normal immune response away from the brain. This approach would still need to be tested in clinical trials before it is possible to know how effective it might be in humans.

Persistent Toll-like receptor 7 stimulation induces behavioral and molecular innate immune tolerance.

Toll-like receptors 7 and 8 (TLR7 and TLR8) are endosomal pattern recognition receptors that detect a variety of single-stranded RNA species. While TLR7/8 agonists have robust therapeutic potential, clinical utility of these agents is limited by sickness responses associated with treatment induction. To understand the kinetics and mechanism of these responses, we characterized the acute and chronic effects of TLR7 stimulation. Single-cell RNA-sequencing studies, RNAscope, and radiolabeled in situ hybridization demonstrate that central nervous system gene expression of TLR7 is exclusive to microglia. In vitro studies demonstrate that microglia are highly sensitive to TLR7 stimulation, and respond in a dose-dependent manner to the imidazoquinoline R848. In vivo, both intraperitoneal (IP) and intracerebroventricular (ICV) R848 induce acute sickness responses including hypophagia, weight loss, and decreased voluntary locomotor activity, associated with increased CNS pro-inflammatory gene expression and changes to glial morphology. However, chronic daily IP R848 resulted in rapid tachyphylaxis of behavioral and molecular manifestations of illness. In microglial in vitro assays, pro-inflammatory transcriptional responses rapidly diminished in the context of repeated R848. In addition to TLR7 desensitization, we found that microglia become partially refractory to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) following R848 pretreatment, associated with induction of negative regulators A20 and Irak3. Similarly, mice pre-treated with R848 demonstrate reduced sickness responses, hypothalamic inflammation, and hepatic inflammation in response to LPS. These data combined demonstrate that TLR7 stimulation induces acute behavioral and molecular evidence of sickness responses. Following prolonged dosing, R848 induces a refractory state to both TLR7 and TLR4 activation, consistent with induced immune tolerance.

Humanised recombinant antibody fragments bind human pancreatic islet cells.

We describe here the humanisation of two mouse monoclonal antibodies that bind to surface markers on human pancreatic islet endocrine cells. Monoclonal antibodies produced by the HIC1-2B4 and HIC0-4F9 mouse hybridomas bind distinct surface molecules expressed on endocrine cells and have been validated for a number of experimental methods including immunohistochemistry and live cell sorting by flow cytometry. Variable region framework and first constant region domain sequences were replaced with that from compatible human antibody sequences, and the resulting recombinant antigen-binding fragments were cloned and expressed in mouse myeloma cells. ELISA, fluorescent immunohistochemistry, and flow cytometry were used to assess the specificity of the humanised antibody fragments. Purification and binding analyses indicated that human islet endocrine cell binding was retained in the humanised antibody fragments. These humanised, recombinant antibody fragments have a lower risk of eliciting adverse responses from a patient's immune system and, therefore, have highly improved clinical potential. Thus, they may be used to image, target or carry cargo specifically to islet cells in human patients.

A novel regulatory pathway for autoimmune disease: binding of partial MHC class II constructs to monocytes reduces CD74 expression and induces both specific and bystander T-cell tolerance.

Treatment with partial (p)MHC class II-ß1α1 constructs (also referred to as recombinant T-cell receptor ligands - RTL) linked to antigenic peptides can induce T-cell tolerance, inhibit recruitment of inflammatory cells and reverse autoimmune diseases. Here we demonstrate a novel regulatory pathway that involves RTL binding to CD11b(+) mononuclear cells through a receptor comprised of MHC class II invariant chain (CD74), cell-surface histones and MHC class II itself for treatment of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). Binding of RTL constructs with CD74 involved a previously unrecognized MHC class II-α1/CD74 interaction that inhibited CD74 expression, blocked activity of its ligand, macrophage migration inhibitory factor, and reduced EAE severity. These findings implicate binding of RTL constructs to CD74 as a key step in both antigen-driven and bystander T-cell tolerance important in treatment of inflammatory diseases.

Preformed CD40L is stored in Th1, Th2, Th17, and T follicular helper cells as well as CD4+ 8- thymocytes and invariant NKT cells but not in Treg cells.

CD40L is essential for the development of adaptive immune responses. It is generally thought that CD40L expression in CD4(+) T cells is regulated transcriptionally and made from new mRNA following antigen recognition. However, imaging studies show that the majority of cognate interactions between effector CD4(+) T cells and APCs in vivo are too short to allow de novo CD40L synthesis. We previously showed that Th1 effector and memory cells store preformed CD40L (pCD40L) in lysosomal compartments and mobilize it onto the plasma membrane immediately after antigenic stimulation, suggesting that primed CD4(+) T cells may use pCD40L to activate APCs during brief encounters. Indeed, our recent study showed that pCD40L is sufficient to mediate selective activation of cognate B cells and trigger DC activation in vitro. In this study, we show that pCD40L is present in Th1 and follicular helper T cells developed during infection with lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus, Th2 cells in the airway of asthmatic mice, and Th17 cells from the CNS of animals with experimental autoimmune encephalitis (EAE). pCD40L is nearly absent in both natural and induced Treg cells, even in the presence of intense inflammation such as occurs in EAE. We also found pCD40L expression in CD4 single positive thymocytes and invariant NKT cells. Together, these results suggest that pCD40L may function in T cell development as well as an unexpectedly broad spectrum of innate and adaptive immune responses, while its expression in Treg cells is repressed to avoid compromising their suppressive activity.

Diurnal rhythms are altered in a mouse model of multiple sclerosis.

Our earlier studies described a disruption of heart rate and blood pressure diurnal rhythms in mice with experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). The present study investigates whether these observations could be extended to additional clock-regulated rhythms in mice with EAE. Analysis of clock gene expression in the liver of EAE mice demonstrated significant variability associated with Per2 rhythmic expression. Corticosterone and leptin hormone rhythms were also altered in EAE mice. The results presented here indicate that disturbances in clock-regulated rhythms are associated with EAE and present a suitable model for investigating the relationship between circadian disruption and autoimmune inflammatory disease.

Regulatory T cells play a role in T-cell receptor CDR2 peptide regulation of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis.

Eliciting T-cell receptor (TCR) -specific responsiveness has been known to provide an effective autoregulatory mechanism for limiting inflammation mediated by T effector cells. Our previous use of TCR peptides derived from the CDR3 regions of a pathogenic TCR effectively reversed ongoing experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) in a humanized TCR transgenic model. In this study, we use the TCR BV8S2 CDR2 peptide in the non-transgenic C57BL/6 EAE model to down-regulate the heterogeneous TCR BV8S2(+) MOG-35-55-specific pathogenic T-cell population and demonstrate successful treatment of EAE after disease onset. Suppression of disease was associated with reduced MOG-35-55-specific and non-specific T-cell production of interleukin-17a and interferon-γ in the central nervous system, as well as reduced numbers of CD4(+) and Foxp3(+) T cells in the central nervous system. With the use of Foxp3-GFP and Foxp3 conditional knockout mice, we demonstrate that the TCR CDR2 peptide treatment effect is dependent on the presence of Foxp3(+) regulatory T cells and that regulatory T cell numbers are significantly expanded in the periphery of treated mice. Hence, TCR CDR2 peptide therapy is effective in regulating heterogeneous, pathogenic T-cell populations through the activity of the Foxp3(+) regulatory T cell population.

Prevention and treatment of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis with clonotypic CDR3 peptides: CD4(+) Foxp3(+) T-regulatory cells suppress interleukin-2-dependent expansion of myelin basic protein-specific T cells.

T-cell receptor (TCR)-derived peptides are recognized by the immune system and are capable of modulating autoimmune responses. Using the myelin basic protein (MBP) TCR 1501 transgenic mouse model, we demonstrated that TCR CDR3 peptides from the transgenic TCR can provide a protective effect when therapy is initiated before the induction of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). More importantly, TCR CDR3 peptide therapy can ameliorate the disease when administered after EAE onset. Concurrent with the therapeutic effects, we observed reduced T-cell proliferation and reduced interleukin-2 (IL-2) levels in response to stimulation with MBP-85-99 peptide in splenocyte cultures from mice receiving TCR CDR3 peptides compared with that of control mice. Moreover, we found that Foxp3(+) CD4 T cells from mice protected with TCR CDR3 peptide are preferentially expanded in the presence of IL-2. This is supportive of a proposed mechanism where Foxp3(+) T-regulatory cells induced by therapy with MBP-85-99 TCR CDR3 peptides limit expansion and the encephalitogenic activity of MBP-85-99-specific T cells by regulating the levels of secreted IL-2.

Recombinase-activating gene 1-associated expression of the myelin basic protein 1-11-specific transgenic T-cell receptor in H-2b mice.

We pursued a breeding strategy intended to generate disease-resistant mice with exclusive expression of the H-2(u)-restricted myelin basic protein (MBP) 1-11 peptide-specific transgenic (Tg) T-cell receptor (TCR) on the T-cell-deficient RAG1KO (H-2(b)) background. Utilizing specific screening assays for the offspring, analyses of the F1 intercross and subsequent crosses revealed that the TgTCR-associated clonotypic marker detected by the 3H12 mAb could be found only in association with the H-2(b) homozygous background in offspring possessing a functional rag1 gene. Moreover, expression of the MBP-specific TgTCR could not be found in H-2(b) homozygous offspring that were RAG1 deficient (rag1(-/-)). PCR analysis of genomic DNA from these 3H12-negative offspring verified the presence of the TCR transgenes. Thus, the presence of a functional rag1 gene was required for the expression of the MBP-specific TgTCR on the H-2(b) background. Given the role for RAG1, the results have important implications for T-cell repertoire development.

A telemetric study of physiologic changes in mice with induced autoimmune encephalomyelitis.

Dysfunction of the autonomic nervous system may be an important component of disease progression in multiple sclerosis (MS), a paralytic inflammatory autoimmune disease of the central nervous system. Using the experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis mouse model of MS, the authors carried out a pilot study to investigate whether telemetric monitoring might be a feasible approach for detecting disturbances in the autonomic control of heart rate and blood pressure after disease induction. Telemetric monitoring devices that were implanted in mice provided useful information regarding the physiologic changes that accompanied disease induction and progression. Changes were observed in heart rate, blood pressure, heart rate variability and diurnal rhythm immediately before and after disease onset. The device implantation procedure did not seem to alter the course of disease. Further investigation may establish these methods as a system for studying the relationships between MS progression and autonomic regulation of physiological status.

Lipopolysaccharide pretreatment modulates the disease course in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis.

Treatment with the bacterial product lipopolysaccharide (LPS) prior to the induction of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) consistently led to a delayed onset of disease but not to a reduction in disease severity. T cell proliferation was reduced in LPS-treated mice, due at least in part to a loss in antigen presenting cell function. T cell and macrophage infiltration into the CNS was delayed and TNFalpha production was diminished in LPS pre-treated mice, consistent with the delay in disease onset. Real-time PCR analysis of gene expression in the CNS of LPS or saline pre-treated mice demonstrated an early induction of TNFalpha, TGFbeta, IFNbeta, and SOCS3 in the LPS pre-treated mice. Thus, exposure to LPS prior to EAE induction affects antigen presentation and may modulate the expression of inflammatory regulators that impact the autoimmune disease course.

T-cell hybridoma specific for myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein-35-55 peptide produced from HLA-DRB1*1501-transgenic mice.

The goal of this study was to establish an unlimited and standardized source of humanized myelin peptide-specific T cells for in vitro testing of biological function. Thus, we perpetuated myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG)-35-55 peptide-specific T cells obtained from immunized HLA-DRB1*1501-transgenic (Tg) mice by somatic fusions with BW5147 thymoma cells or BW5147 T-cell receptor (TCR) alpha(-)beta(-) variant (BW5147 variant) cells. The resulting T-cell hybridomas responded strongly to both mouse MOG-35-55 (42S) and human MOG-35-55 peptide (42P), regardless of which peptide was used for initial immunization, and were DRB1*1501 restricted. The MOG-35-55-reactive T-cell hybridomas were CD3(+)CD4(+)CD8(-) and expressed intracellular Th1 cytokines upon concanavalin A stimulation. Clones from either human MOG-35-55- or mouse MOG-35-55-selected hybridomas uniquely expressed the TCR BV8 gene in combination with AV17 and AV11 genes. V gene analyses confirmed the expression of TCR AV1, AV11, AV16, BV1, and BV5 gene segments in the widely used fusion partner BW5147 and demonstrated deletion of TCR AV1, AV11, and BV1 in the BW5147 variant. T-cell hybridomas were positively stained with anti-TCR beta-chain antibody on the cell surface, whereas neither BW5147 nor its variant had positive TCR surface expression. For functional application, we found that a monomeric form of the human HLA-DR2-derived recombinant T-cell receptor ligand (RTL) covalently linked to human MOG-35-55 peptide specifically inhibited proliferation of a hybridoma clone selected with human MOG-35-55 but not a different hybridoma clone selected with myelin basic protein. The RTL-induced inhibition in vitro of the human MOG-35-55 peptide-specific hybridoma reflected the ability of the RTL to inhibit experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis induced by human MOG-35-55 peptide in HLA-DR2 transgenic mice. Thus, the MOG-35-55 peptide-specific T-cell hybridoma from DR2-Tg mice represents a novel humanized T-cell reagent useful for standardized biological screening of both DR2-restricted stimulation and RTL-dependent inhibition of response to human MOG-35-55 peptide.

Specificity of regulatory CD4+CD25+ T cells for self-T cell receptor determinants.

Although the phenotypic and regulatory properties of the CD4(+)CD25(+) T cell lineage (Treg cells) have been well described, the specificities remain largely unknown. We demonstrate here that the CD4(+)CD25(+) Treg population includes the recognition of a broad spectrum of human TCR CDR2 determinants found in the germline V gene repertoire as well as that of a clonotypic nongermline-encoded CDR3beta sequence present in a recombinant soluble T cell receptor (TCR) protein. Regulatory activity was demonstrated in T cell lines responsive to TCR but not in T cell lines responsive to control antigens. Inhibitory activity of TCR-reactive T cells required cell-cell contact and involved CTLA-4, GITR, IL-10, and IL-17. Thus, the T-T regulatory network includes Treg cells with specificity directed toward self-TCR determinants.

Production, characterization, and immunogenicity of a soluble rat single chain T cell receptor specific for an encephalitogenic peptide.

The encephalitogenic rat T cell clone C14 recognizes the myelin basic protein 69-89 peptide in the context of the RT1B major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II molecule. Modeling of the C14 TCR molecule indicated that previously identified CDR3 motifs are likely to be central to interaction with MHC class II-presented peptide. Here we report the cloning and expression of C14-derived single chain TCR (scTCR) molecules in an Escherichia coli expression system. The recombinant molecule consists of the Valpha2 domain connected to the Vbeta8.2 domain via a 15-residue linker. Soluble C14 scTCR was purified using conventional chromatography techniques and refolded by a rapid dilution procedure. C14 scTCR was able to bind soluble rat MHC class II molecules bearing covalently coupled Gp-BP-(69-89) peptide, as analyzed using surface plasmon resonance. Immune recognition of the C14 scTCR protein as an antigen revealed that limited regions of the TCR may be more likely to induce responsiveness.

Endogenous CD4+BV8S2- T cells from TG BV8S2+ donors confer complete protection against spontaneous experimental encephalomyelitis (Sp-EAE) in TCR transgenic, RAG-/- mice.

To investigate regulatory mechanisms which naturally prevent autoimmune diseases, we adopted the genetically restricted immunodeficient (RAG-1(-/-)) myelin basic protein (MBP)-specific T cell receptor (TCR) double transgenic (T/R-) mouse model of spontaneous experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (Sp-EAE). Sp-EAE can be prevented after transfer of CD4+splenocytes from naïve immunocompetent mice. RAG-1+ double transgenic (T/R+) mice do not develop Sp-EAE due to the presence of a very small population (about 2%) of non-Tg TCR specificities. In this study, CD4+BV8S2+ T cells that predominate in T/R+ mice, and three additional populations, CD4+BV8S2-, CD4-CD8-BV8S2+, and CD4-CD8+BV8S2+ T cells that expanded in T/R+ mice after immunization with MBP-Ac1-11 peptide, were studied for their ability to prevent Sp-EAE in T/R- mice. Only the CD4+BV8S2- T cell population conferred complete protection against Sp-EAE, similar to unfractionated splenocytes from non-Tg donors, whereas CD4-CD8-BV8S2+ and CD4+BV8S2+ T cells conferred partial protection. In contrast, CD4-CD8+BV8S2+ T cells had no significant protective effects. The highly protective CD4+BV8S2- subpopulation was CD25+, contained non-clonotypic T cells, and uniquely expressed the CCR4 chemokine receptor. Protected recipient T/R- mice had marked increases in CD4+CD25+ Treg-like cells, retention of the pathogenic T cell phenotype in the spleen, and markedly reduced inflammation in CNS tissue. Partially protective CD4+BV8S2+ and CD4- CD8-BV8S2+ subpopulations appeared to be mainly clonotypic T cells with altered functional properties. These three Sp-EAE protective T cell subpopulations possessed distinctive properties and induced a variety of effects in T/R- recipients, thus implicating differing mechanisms of protection.

Estrogen inhibition of EAE involves effects on dendritic cell function.

Estrogen has been found to have suppressive effects on the induction of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), an animal model for the human disease multiple sclerosis. We have investigated the effects of 17beta-estradiol (E2) treatment on dendritic cells (DCs) in two different mouse models of EAE. The frequency of CD11b(+)/CD11c(+) DCs was significantly decreased in the brain of mice protected from EAE induction by E2 treatment. In addition, the frequency of CD11c(+)/CD8alpha(+) DCs producing tumor necrosis factor (TNF)alpha and interferon (IFN)gamma in the spleen of E2-treated mice was dramatically decreased compared to that in control mice with EAE, demonstrating an effect of E2 on DC function. In order to examine E2 effects on DCs in more detail, splenic DCs were cultured in the presence of granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) and interleukin (IL)-4 to promote maturation. E2 pretreatment was found to suppress the ability of cultured DCs bearing a mature phenotype to present Ag to myelin basic protein (MBP)-specific T cells. Analysis of cytokine production demonstrated that E2 decreased TNFalpha, IFNgamma and IL-12 production in mature DCs. In addition, MBP-specific T cells cocultured with E2-pretreated mature DCs in the presence of antigen demonstrated a shift towards production of Th2 cytokines IL-4 and IL-10 and a concomitant decrease in the production of Th1 cytokines TNFalpha and IFNgamma. Thus, E2 treatment appears to have multiple effects on the DC population, which may contribute to a down-regulation or block in the activation of Th1 cells involved in the induction of EAE.

Estrogen inhibits systemic T cell expression of TNF-alpha and recruitment of TNF-alpha(+) T cells and macrophages into the CNS of mice developing experimental encephalomyelitis.

Estrogen treatment has been found to have suppressive activity in several models of autoimmunity. To investigate the mechanism of 17 beta-estradiol (E2) suppression of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, we evaluated E2 effects on TNF-alpha expression in the central nervous system (CNS) and spleen of C57BL/6 mice immunized with MOG 35-55/CFA. Kinetic analysis demonstrated that E2 treatment drastically decreased the recruitment of total inflammatory cells as well as TNF-alpha(+) macrophages and T cells into the CNS at disease onset. In contrast, E2 had only moderate effects on the relatively high constitutive TNF-alpha expression by resident CNS microglial cells. E2 treatment also had profound inhibitory effects on expression of TNF-alpha by splenic CD4(+) T cells, including those responsive to MOG 35-55 peptide. We propose that the mechanism of E2 protection may involve both systemic inhibition of TNF-alpha expression and local (CNS) recruitment of inflammatory cells, with modest effects on TNF-alpha expression by resident CNS microglial cells.