Airway surveillance and lung viral control by memory T cells induced by COVID-19 mRNA vaccine.

Although SARS-CoV-2 evolution seeds a continuous stream of antibody-evasive viral variants, COVID-19 mRNA vaccines provide robust protection against severe disease and hospitalization. Here, we asked whether mRNA vaccine-induced memory T cells limit lung SARS-CoV-2 replication and severe disease. We show that mice and humans receiving booster BioNTech mRNA vaccine developed potent CD8 T cell responses and showed similar kinetics of expansion and contraction of granzyme B/perforin-expressing effector CD8 T cells. Both monovalent and bivalent mRNA vaccines elicited strong expansion of a heterogeneous pool of terminal effectors and memory precursor effector CD8 T cells in spleen, inguinal and mediastinal lymph nodes, pulmonary vasculature, and most surprisingly in the airways, suggestive of systemic and regional surveillance. Furthermore, we document that: (a) CD8 T cell memory persists in multiple tissues for > 200 days; (b) following challenge with pathogenic SARS-CoV-2, circulating memory CD8 T cells rapidly extravasate to the lungs and promote expeditious viral clearance, by mechanisms that require CD4 T cell help; and (c) adoptively transferred splenic memory CD8 T cells traffic to the airways and promote lung SARS-CoV-2 clearance. These findings provide insights into the critical role of memory T cells in preventing severe lung disease following breakthrough infections with antibody-evasive SARS-CoV-2 variants.

Complete sequencing of a cynomolgus macaque major histocompatibility complex haplotype.

Macaques provide the most widely used nonhuman primate models for studying the immunology and pathogenesis of human diseases. Although the macaque major histocompatibility complex (MHC) region shares most features with the human leukocyte antigen (HLA) region, macaques have an expanded repertoire of MHC class I genes. Although a chimera of two rhesus macaque MHC haplotypes was first published in 2004, the structural diversity of MHC genomic organization in macaques remains poorly understood owing to a lack of adequate genomic reference sequences. We used ultralong Oxford Nanopore and high-accuracy Pacific Biosciences (PacBio) HiFi sequences to fully assemble the ∼5.2-Mb M3 haplotype of an MHC-homozygous, Mauritian-origin cynomolgus macaque (Macaca fascicularis). The MHC homozygosity allowed us to assemble a single MHC haplotype unambiguously and avoid chimeric assemblies that hampered previous efforts to characterize this exceptionally complex genomic region in macaques. The high quality of this new assembly is exemplified by the identification of an extended cluster of six Mafa-AG genes that contains a recent duplication with a highly similar ∼48.5-kb block of sequence. The MHC class II region of this M3 haplotype is similar to the previously sequenced rhesus macaque haplotype and HLA class II haplotypes. The MHC class I region, in contrast, contains 13 MHC-B genes, four MHC-A genes, and three MHC-E genes (vs. 19 MHC-B, two MHC-A, and one MHC-E in the previously sequenced haplotype). These results provide an unambiguously assembled single contiguous cynomolgus macaque MHC haplotype with fully curated gene annotations that will inform infectious disease and transplantation research.

Pernio and early SARS-CoV-2 variants: natural history of a prospective cohort and the role of interferon.

Cases of new-onset pernio and recurrences in our cohort align tightly with trends in mean 7-day COVID-19 positivity in Wisconsin and mean temperature in Madison, Wisconsin by month.

Consistent ultra-long DNA sequencing with automated slow pipetting.

BACKGROUND: Oxford Nanopore Technologies' instruments can sequence reads of great length. Long reads improve sequence assemblies by unambiguously spanning repetitive elements of the genome. Sequencing reads of significant length requires the preservation of long DNA template molecules through library preparation by pipetting reagents as slowly as possible to minimize shearing. This process is time-consuming and inconsistent at preserving read length as even small changes in volumetric flow rate can result in template shearing. RESULTS: We have designed SNAILS (Slow Nucleic Acid Instrument for Long Sequences), a 3D-printable instrument that automates slow pipetting of reagents used in long read library preparation for Oxford Nanopore sequencing. Across six sequencing libraries, SNAILS preserved more reads exceeding 100 kilobases in length and increased its libraries' average read length over manual slow pipetting. CONCLUSIONS: SNAILS is a low-cost, easily deployable solution for improving sequencing projects that require reads of significant length. By automating the slow pipetting of library preparation reagents, SNAILS increases the consistency and throughput of long read Nanopore sequencing.

Initial evaluation of a mobile SARS-CoV-2 RT-LAMP testing strategy.

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) control in the United States remains hampered, in part, by testing limitations. We evaluated a simple, outdoor, mobile, colorimetric reverse transcription loop-mediated isothermal amplification (RT-LAMP) assay workflow where self-collected saliva is tested for SARS-CoV-2 RNA. From July 16 to November 19, 2020, 4,704 surveillance samples were collected from volunteers and tested for SARS-CoV-2 at 5 sites. A total of 21 samples tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 by RT-LAMP; 12 were confirmed positive by subsequent quantitative reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) testing, while 8 were negative for SARS-CoV-2 RNA, and 1 could not be confirmed because the donor did not consent to further molecular testing. We estimated the RT-LAMP assay's false-negative rate from July 16 to September 17, 2020 by pooling residual heat-inactivated saliva that was unambiguously negative by RT-LAMP into groups of 6 or less and testing for SARS-CoV-2 RNA by qRT-PCR. We observed a 98.8% concordance between the RT-LAMP and qRT-PCR assays, with only 5 of 421 RT-LAMP negative pools (2,493 samples) testing positive in the more sensitive qRT-PCR assay. Overall, we demonstrate a rapid testing method that can be implemented outside the traditional laboratory setting by individuals with basic molecular biology skills and can effectively identify asymptomatic individuals who would not typically meet the criteria for symptom-based testing modalities.

Initial Evaluation of a Mobile SARS-CoV-2 RT-LAMP Testing Strategy.

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) control in the United States remains hampered, in part, by testing limitations. We evaluated a simple, outdoor, mobile, colorimetric reverse-transcription loop-mediated isothermal amplification (RT-LAMP) assay workflow where self-collected saliva is tested for SARS-CoV-2 RNA. From July 16, 2020, to November 19, 2020, surveillance samples (n = 4704) were collected from volunteers and tested for SARS-CoV-2 at 5 sites. Twenty-one samples tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 by RT-LAMP; 12 were confirmed positive by subsequent quantitative reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) testing, whereas 8 tested negative for SARS-CoV-2 RNA, and 1 could not be confirmed because the donor did not consent to further molecular testing. We estimated the false-negative rate of the RT-LAMP assay only from July 16, 2020, to September 17, 2020 by pooling residual heat-inactivated saliva that was unambiguously negative by RT-LAMP into groups of 6 or fewer and testing for SARS-CoV-2 RNA by qRT-PCR. We observed a 98.8% concordance between the RT-LAMP and qRT-PCR assays, with only 5 of 421 RT-LAMP-negative pools (2493 total samples) testing positive in the more-sensitive qRT-PCR assay. Overall, we demonstrate a rapid testing method that can be implemented outside the traditional laboratory setting by individuals with basic molecular biology skills and that can effectively identify asymptomatic individuals who would not typically meet the criteria for symptom-based testing modalities.

Characterization of 100 extended major histocompatibility complex haplotypes in Indonesian cynomolgus macaques.

Many medical advancements-including improvements to anti-rejection therapies in transplantation and vaccine development-rely on preclinical studies conducted in cynomolgus macaques (Macaca fascicularis). Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I and class II genes of cynomolgus macaques are orthologous to human leukocyte antigen complex (HLA) class I and class II genes, respectively. Both encode cell-surface proteins involved in cell recognition and rejection of non-host tissues. MHC class I and class II genes are highly polymorphic, so comprehensive genotyping requires the development of complete databases of allelic variants. Our group used PacBio circular consensus sequencing of full-length cDNA amplicons to characterize MHC class I and class II transcript sequences for a cohort of 293 Indonesian cynomolgus macaques (ICM) in a large, pedigreed breeding colony. These studies allowed us to expand the existing database of Macaca fascicularis (Mafa) alleles by identifying an additional 141 MHC class I and 61 class II transcript sequences. In addition, we defined co-segregating combinations of allelic variants as regional haplotypes for 70 Mafa-A, 78 Mafa-B, and 45 Mafa-DRB gene clusters. Finally, we defined class I and class II transcripts that are associated with 100 extended MHC haplotypes in this breeding colony by combining our genotyping analyses with short tandem repeat (STR) patterns across the MHC region. Our sequencing analyses and haplotype definitions improve the utility of these ICM for transplantation studies as well as infectious disease and vaccine research.

Critical symbiont signals drive both local and systemic changes in diel and developmental host gene expression.

The colonization of an animal's tissues by its microbial partners creates networks of communication across the host's body. We used the natural binary light-organ symbiosis between the squid Euprymna scolopes and its luminous bacterial partner, Vibrio fischeri, to define the impact of colonization on transcriptomic networks in the host. A night-active predator, E. scolopes coordinates the bioluminescence of its symbiont with visual cues from the environment to camouflage against moon and starlight. Like mammals, this symbiosis has a complex developmental program and a strong day/night rhythm. We determined how symbiont colonization impacted gene expression in the light organ itself, as well as in two anatomically remote organs: the eye and gill. While the overall transcriptional signature of light organ and gill were more alike, the impact of symbiosis was most pronounced and similar in light organ and eye, both in juvenile and adult animals. Furthermore, the presence of a symbiosis drove daily rhythms of transcription within all three organs. Finally, a single mutation in V. fischeri-specifically, deletion of the lux operon, which abrogates symbiont luminescence-reduced the symbiosis-dependent transcriptome of the light organ by two-thirds. In addition, while the gills responded similarly to light-organ colonization by either the wild-type or mutant, luminescence was required for all of the colonization-associated transcriptional responses in the juvenile eye. This study defines not only the impact of symbiont colonization on the coordination of animal transcriptomes, but also provides insight into how such changes might impact the behavior and ecology of the host.

Characterization of Mauritian Cynomolgus Macaque FcγR Alleles Using Long-Read Sequencing.

The FcγRs are immune cell surface proteins that bind IgG and facilitate cytokine production, phagocytosis, and Ab-dependent, cell-mediated cytotoxicity. FcγRs play a critical role in immunity; variation in these genes is implicated in autoimmunity and other diseases. Cynomolgus macaques are an excellent animal model for many human diseases, and Mauritian cynomolgus macaques (MCMs) are particularly useful because of their restricted genetic diversity. Previous studies of MCM immune gene diversity have focused on the MHC and killer cell Ig-like receptor. In this study, we characterize FcγR diversity in 48 MCMs using PacBio long-read sequencing to identify novel alleles of each of the four expressed MCM FcγR genes. We also developed a high-throughput FcγR genotyping assay, which we used to determine allele frequencies and identify FcγR haplotypes in more than 500 additional MCMs. We found three alleles for FcγR1A, seven each for FcγR2A and FcγR2B, and four for FcγR3A; these segregate into eight haplotypes. We also assessed whether different FcγR alleles confer different Ab-binding affinities by surface plasmon resonance and found minimal difference in binding affinities across alleles for a panel of wild type and Fc-engineered human IgG. This work suggests that although MCMs may not fully represent the diversity of FcγR responses in humans, they may offer highly reproducible results for mAb therapy and toxicity studies.

Epidemiological and genomic determinants of tuberculosis outbreaks in First Nations communities in Canada.

BACKGROUND: In Canada, tuberculosis disproportionately affects foreign-born and First Nations populations. Within First Nations' peoples, a high proportion of cases occur in association with outbreaks. Tuberculosis transmission in the context of outbreaks is thought to result from the convergence of several factors including characteristics of the cases, contacts, the environment, and the pathogen. METHODS: We examined the epidemiological and genomic determinants of two well-characterized tuberculosis outbreaks attributed to two super-spreaders among First Nations in the province of Alberta. These outbreaks were associated with two distinct DNA fingerprints (restriction fragment-length polymorphisms or RFLPs 0.0142 and 0.0728). We compared outbreak isolates with endemic isolates not spatio-temporarily linked to outbreak cases. We extracted epidemiological variables pertaining to tuberculosis cases and contacts from individual public health records and the provincial tuberculosis registry. We conducted group analyses using parametric and non-parametric statistical tests. We carried out whole-genome sequencing and bioinformatic analysis using validated protocols. RESULTS: We observed differences between outbreak and endemic groups in the mean number of total and child-aged contacts and the number of contacts with new positive and converted tuberculin skin tests in all group comparisons (p < 0.05). Differences were also detected in the proportion of cases with cavitation on a chest radiograph and the mean number of close contacts in selected group comparisons (p < 0.02). A phylogenetic network analysis of whole-genome sequencing data indicated that most outbreak and endemic strains were closely related to the source case for the 0.0142 fingerprint. For the 0.0728 fingerprint, the source case haplotype was circulating among endemic cases prior to the outbreak. Genetic and temporal distances were not correlated for either RFLP 0.0142 (r2 = - 0.05) or RFLP 0.0728 (r2 = 0.09) when all isolates were analyzed. CONCLUSIONS: We found no evidence that endemic strains acquired mutations resulting in their emergence in outbreak form. We conclude that the propagation of these outbreaks was likely driven by the combination of characteristics of the source cases, contacts, and the environment. The role of whole-genome sequencing in understanding mycobacterial evolution and in assisting public health authorities in conducting contact investigations and managing outbreaks is important and expected to grow in the future.

Restricted MHC class I A locus diversity in olive and hybrid olive/yellow baboons from the Southwest National Primate Research Center.

Baboons are valuable models for complex human diseases due to their genetic and physiologic similarities to humans. Deep sequencing methods to characterize full-length major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I (MHC-I) alleles in different nonhuman primate populations were used to identify novel MHC-I alleles in baboons. We combined data from Illumina MiSeq sequencing and Roche/454 sequencing to characterize novel full-length MHC-I transcripts in a cohort of olive and hybrid olive/yellow baboons from the Southwest National Primate Research Center (SNPRC). We characterized 57 novel full-length alleles from 24 baboons and found limited genetic diversity at the MHC-I A locus, with significant sharing of two MHC-I A lineages between 22 out of the 24 animals characterized. These shared alleles provide the basis for development of tools such as MHC:peptide tetramers for studying cellular immune responses in this important animal model.