Screening strategy for developing thermoelectric interface materials.

Thermoelectric interface materials (TEiMs) are essential to the development of thermoelectric generators. Common TEiMs use pure metals or binary alloys but have performance stability issues. Conventional selection of TEiMs generally relies on trial-and-error experimentation. We developed a TEiM screening strategy that is based on phase diagram predictions by density functional theory calculations. By combining the phase diagram with electrical resistivity and melting points of potential reaction products, we discovered that the semimetal MgCuSb is a reliable TEiM for high-performance MgAgSb. The MgCuSb/MgAgSb junction exhibits low interfacial contact resistivity (ρc <1 microhm square centimeter) even after annealing at 553 kelvin for 16 days. The fabricated two-pair MgAgSb/Mg3.2Bi1.5Sb0.5 module demonstrated a high conversion efficiency of 9.25% under a 300 kelvin temperature gradient. We performed an international round-robin testing of module performance to confirm the measurement reliability. The strategy can be applied to other thermoelectric materials, filling a vital gap in the development of thermoelectric modules.

High Thermoelectric Performance in Chalcopyrite Cu1-xAgxGaTe2-ZnTe: Nontrivial Band Structure and Dynamic Doping Effect.

The understanding of thermoelectric properties of ternary I-III-VI2 type (I = Cu, Ag; III = Ga, In; and VI = Te) chalcopyrites is less well developed. Although their thermal transport properties are relatively well studied, the relationship between the electronic band structure and charge transport properties of chalcopyrites has been rarely discussed. In this study, we reveal the unusual electronic band structure and the dynamic doping effect that could underpin the promising thermoelectric properties of Cu1-xAgxGaTe2 compounds. Density functional theory (DFT) calculations and electronic transport measurements suggest that the Cu1-xAgxGaTe2 compounds possess an unusual non-parabolic band structure, which is important for obtaining a high Seebeck coefficient. Moreover, a mid-gap impurity level was also observed in Cu1-xAgxGaTe2, which leads to a strong temperature-dependent carrier concentration and is able to regulate the carrier density at the optimized value for a wide temperature region and thus is beneficial to obtaining the high power factor and high average ZT of Cu1-xAgxGaTe2 compounds. We also demonstrate a great improvement in the thermoelectric performance of Cu1-xAgxGaTe2 by introducing Cu vacancies and ZnTe alloying. The Cu vacancies are effective in increasing the hole density and the electrical conductivity, while ZnTe alloying reduces the thermal conductivity. As a result, a maximum ZT of 1.43 at 850 K and a record-high average ZT of 0.81 for the Cu0.68Ag0.3GaTe2-0.5%ZnTe compound are achieved.

Valence Disproportionation of GeS in the PbS Matrix Forms Pb5Ge5S12 Inclusions with Conduction Band Alignment Leading to High n-Type Thermoelectric Performance.

Converting waste heat into useful electricity using solid-state thermoelectrics has a potential for enormous global energy savings. Lead chalcogenides are among the most prominent thermoelectric materials, whose performance decreases with an increase in chalcogen amounts (e.g., PbTe > PbSe > PbS). Herein, we demonstrate the simultaneous optimization of the electrical and thermal transport properties of PbS-based compounds by alloying with GeS. The addition of GeS triggers a complex cascade of beneficial events as follows: Ge2+ substitution in Pb2+ and discordant off-center behavior; formation of Pb5Ge5S12 as stable second-phase inclusions through valence disproportionation of Ge2+ to Ge0 and Ge4+. PbS and Pb5Ge5S12 exhibit good conduction band energy alignment that preserves the high electron mobility; the formation of Pb5Ge5S12 increases the electron carrier concentration by introducing S vacancies. Sb doping as the electron donor produces a large power factor and low lattice thermal conductivity (κlat) of ∼0.61 W m-1 K-1. The highest performance was obtained for the 14% GeS-alloyed samples, which exhibited an increased room-temperature electron mobility of ∼121 cm2 V-1 s-1 for 3 × 1019 cm-3 carrier density and a ZT of 1.32 at 923 K. This is ∼55% greater than the corresponding Sb-doped PbS sample and is one of the highest reported for the n-type PbS system. Moreover, the average ZT (ZTavg) of ∼0.76 from 400 to 923 K is the highest for PbS-based systems.

Low Thermal Conductivity in Heteroanionic Materials with Layers of Homoleptic Polyhedra.

Although BiAgOSe, an analogue of a well-studied thermoelectric material BiCuOSe, is thermodynamically stable, its synthesis is complicated by the low driving force of formation from the stable binary and ternary intermediates. Here we have developed a "subtraction strategy" to suppress byproducts and produce pure phase BiAgOSe using hydrothermal methods. Electronic structure calculations and optical characterization show that BiAgOSe is an indirect bandgap semiconductor with a bandgap of 0.95 eV. The prepared sample exhibits lower lattice thermal conductivities (0.61 W·m-1·K-1 at room temperature and 0.35 W·m-1·K-1 at 650 K) than BiCuOSe. Lattice dynamical simulations and variable temperature diffraction measurements demonstrate that the low lattice thermal conductivity arises from both the low sound velocity and high phonon-phonon scattering rates in BiAgOSe. These in turn result primarily from the soft Ag-Se bonds in the edge-sharing AgSe4 tetrahedra and large sublattice mismatch between the quasi-two-dimensional [Bi2O2]2+ and [Ag2Se2]2- layers. These results highlight the advantages of manipulating the chemistry of homoleptic polyhedra in heteroanionic compounds for electronic structure and phonon transport control.

Thermoelectric Performance of the 2D Bi2Si2Te6 Semiconductor.

Bi2Si2Te6, a 2D compound, is a direct band gap semiconductor with an optical band gap of ∼0.25 eV, and is a promising thermoelectric material. Single-phase Bi2Si2Te6 is prepared by a scalable ball-milling and annealing process, and the highly densified polycrystalline samples are prepared by spark plasma sintering. Bi2Si2Te6 shows a p-type semiconductor transport behavior and exhibits an intrinsically low lattice thermal conductivity of ∼0.48 W m-1 K-1 (cross-plane) at 573 K. The first-principles density functional theory calculations indicate that such low lattice thermal conductivity is derived from the interactions between acoustic phonons and low-lying optical phonons, local vibrations of Bi, the low Debye temperature, and strong anharmonicity result from the unique 2D crystal structure and metavalent bonding of Bi2Si2Te6. The Bi2Si2Te6 exhibits an optimal figure of merit ZT of ∼0.51 at 623 K, which can be further enhanced by the substitution of Bi with Pb. Pb doping leads to a large increase in power factor S2σ, from ∼3.9 µW cm-1 K-2 of Bi2Si2Te6 to ∼8.0 µW cm-1 K-2 of Bi1.98Pb0.02Si2Te6 at 773 K, owing to the increase in carrier concentration. Moreover, Pb doping induces a further reduction in the lattice thermal conductivity to ∼0.38 W m-1 K-1 (cross-plane) at 623 K in Bi1.98Pb0.02Si2Te6, due to strengthened point defect (PbBi') scattering. The simultaneous optimization of the power factor and lattice thermal conductivity achieves a peak ZT of ∼0.90 at 723 K and a high average ZT of ∼0.66 at 400-773 K in Bi1.98Pb0.02Si2Te6.

Enhancing Thermoelectric Performance of Yb0.3Co4Sb12 by Synergistically Optimized Carrier Concentration and Ionized Impurity Scattering.

Previous results indicated that acceptor doping was considered an effective clue to substantially suppress electronic thermal conductivity and in the meanwhile hold a rather low lattice thermal conductivity in high Yb-filled skutterudites. However, the strength of ionized impurity scattering needs to be regulated elaborately to balance the enhanced Seebeck coefficient and the deteriorated carrier mobility. In this work, Ge doping not only synergistically modulates the Fermi energy level and strength of ionized impurity scattering to an optimal range and attains a benign power factor but also offers a valuable opportunity to further suppress κe and κ in the classic Yb0.3Co4Sb12 alloy. Since the Yb0.3Co4Sb11.75Ge0.25 sample is endowed with the most highlighted ZT value in the device application temperature range, a promising average ZT value of 1.00 across the 300-823 K is achieved, reaching up to the level of a typical triple-filled skutterudite, which is highly desirable for achieving a satisfactory theoretical conversion efficiency of ∼14.5%. Our work corroborates that the ionized impurity strength is an extremely critical benchmark to obtain desirable thermoelectric performance in the high Yb-filled skutterudites.

Ultralow Thermal Conductivity in Diamondoid Structures and High Thermoelectric Performance in (Cu1-xAgx)(In1-yGay)Te2.

Owing to the diversity of composition and excellent transport properties, the ternary I-III-VI2 type diamond-like chalcopyrite compounds are attractive functional semiconductors, including as thermoelectric materials. In this family, CuInTe2 and CuGaTe2 are well investigated and achieve maximum ZT values of ∼1.4 at 950 K and an average ZT of 0.43. However, both compounds have poor electrical conductivity at low temperature, resulting in low ZT below 450 K. In this work, we have greatly improved the thermoelectric performance in the quinary diamondoid compound (Cu0.8Ag0.2)(In0.2Ga0.8)Te2 by understanding and controlling the effects of different constituent elements on the thermoelectric transport properties. Our combined theoretical and experimental effort indicates that Ga in the In site of the lattice decreases the carrier effective mass and improves the electrical conductivity and power factor of Cu0.8Ag0.2In1-xGaxTe2. Furthermore, Ag in the Cu site strongly suppresses the heat transport via the enhanced acoustic phonon-optical phonon coupling effects, leading to the ultralow thermal conductivity of ∼0.49 W m-1 K-1 at 850 K in Cu0.8Ag0.2In0.2Ga0.8Te2. Defect formation energy calculations suggest intrinsic Cu vacancies introduce defect levels that are important to the temperature-dependent hole density and electrical conductivity. Therefore, we introduced extra Cu vacancies to optimize the hole carrier density and improve the power factor of Cu0.8Ag0.2In0.2Ga0.8Te2. As a result, a maximum ZT of ∼1.5 at 850 K and an average ZT of 0.78 in the temperature range of 400-850 K are obtained, which is among the highest in the diamond-like compound family.

Strong Valence Band Convergence to Enhance Thermoelectric Performance in PbSe with Two Chemically Independent Controls.

We present an effective approach to favorably modify the electronic structure of PbSe using Ag doping coupled with SrSe or BaSe alloying. The Ag 4d states make a contribution to in the top of the heavy hole valence band and raise its energy. The Sr and Ba atoms diminish the contribution of Pb 6s2 states and decrease the energy of the light hole valence band. This electronic structure modification increases the density-of-states effective mass, and strongly enhances the thermoelectric performance. Moreover, the Ag-rich nanoscale precipitates, discordant Ag atoms, and Pb/Sr, Pb/Ba point defects in the PbSe matrix work together to reduce the lattice thermal conductivity, resulting a record high average ZTavg of around 0.86 over 400-923 K.

High Thermoelectric Performance in the New Cubic Semiconductor AgSnSbSe3 by High-Entropy Engineering.

We investigate the structural and physical properties of the AgSnmSbSem+2 system with m = 1-20 (i.e., SnSe matrix and ∼5-50% AgSbSe2) from atomic, nano, and macro length scales. We find the 50:50 composition, with m = 1 (i.e., AgSnSbSe3), forms a stable cation-disordered cubic rock-salt p-type semiconductor with a special multi-peak electronic valence band structure. AgSnSbSe3 has an intrinsically low lattice thermal conductivity of ∼0.47 W m-1 K-1 at 673 K owing to the synergy of cation disorder, phonon anharmonicity, low phonon velocity, and low-frequency optical modes. Furthermore, Te alloying on Se sites creates a quinary high-entropy NaCl-type solid solution AgSnSbSe3-xTex with randomly disordered cations and anions. The extra point defects and lattice dislocations lead to glass-like lattice thermal conductivities of ∼0.32 W m-1 K-1 at 723 K and higher hole carrier concentration than AgSnSbSe3. Concurrently, the Te alloying promotes greater convergence of the multiple valence band maxima in AgSnSbSe1.5Te1.5, the composition with the highest configurational entropy. Facilitated by these favorable modifications, we achieve a high average power factor of ∼9.54 µW cm-1 K-2 (400-773 K), a peak thermoelectric figure of merit ZT of 1.14 at 723 K, and a high average ZT of ∼1.0 over a wide temperature range of 400-773 K in AgSnSbSe1.5Te1.5.

High Figure of Merit in Gallium-Doped Nanostructured n-Type PbTe-xGeTe with Midgap States.

PbTe-based thermoelectric materials are some of the most promising for converting heat into electricity, but their n-type versions still lag in performance the p-type ones. Here, we introduce midgap states and nanoscale precipitates using Ga-doping and GeTe-alloying to considerably improve the performance of n-type PbTe. The GeTe alloying significantly enlarges the energy band gap of PbTe and subsequent Ga doping introduces special midgap states that lead to an increased density of states (DOS) effective mass and enhanced Seebeck coefficients. Moreover, the nucleated Ga2Te3 nanoscale precipitates and off-center discordant Ge atoms in the PbTe matrix cause intense phonon scattering, strongly reducing the thermal conductivity (∼0.65 W m-1 K-1 at 623 K). As a result, a high room-temperature thermoelectric figure of merit ZT ∼ 0.59 and a peak ZTmax of ∼1.47 at 673 K were obtained for the Pb0.98Ga0.02Te-5%GeTe. The ZTavg value that is most relevant for devices is ∼1.27 from 400 to 773 K, the highest recorded value for n-type PbTe.

Enhancement of Thermoelectric Performance for n-Type PbS through Synergy of Gap State and Fermi Level Pinning.

We report that Ga-doped and Ga-In-codoped n-type PbS samples show excellent thermoelectric performance in the intermediate temperature range. First-principles electronic structure calculations reveal that Ga doping can cause Fermi level pinning in PbS by introducing a gap state between the conduction and valence bands. Furthermore, Ga-In codoping introduces an extra conduction band. These added electronic features lead to high electron mobilities up to µH ∼ 630 cm2 V-1 s-1 for n of 1.67 × 1019 cm-3 and significantly enhanced Seebeck coefficients in PbS. Consequently, we obtained a maximum power factor of ∼32 µW cm-1 K-2 at 300 K for Pb0.9875Ga0.0125S, which is the highest reported for PbS-based systems giving a room-temperature figure of merit, ZT, of ∼0.35 and ∼0.82 at 923 K. For the codoped Pb0.9865Ga0.0125In0.001S, the maximum ZT rises to ∼1.0 at 923 K and achieves a record-high average ZT (ZTavg) of ∼0.74 in the temperature range of 400-923 K.

All-Scale Hierarchically Structured p-Type PbSe Alloys with High Thermoelectric Performance Enabled by Improved Band Degeneracy.

We show an example of hierarchically designing electronic bands of PbSe toward excellent thermoelectric performance. We find that alloying 15 mol % PbTe into PbSe causes a negligible change in the light and heavy valence band energy offsets (Δ EV) of PbSe around room temperature; however, with rising temperature it makes Δ EV decrease at a significantly higher rate than in PbSe. In other words, the temperature-induced valence band convergence of PbSe is accelerated by alloying with PbTe. On this basis, applying 3 mol % Cd substitution on the Pb sites of PbSe0.85Te0.15 decreases Δ EV and enhances the Seebeck coefficient at all temperatures. Excess Cd precipitates out as CdSe1- yTe y, whose valence band aligns with that of the p-type Na-doped PbSe0.85Te0.15 matrix. This enables facile charge transport across the matrix/precipitate interfaces and retains the high carrier mobilities. Meanwhile, compared to PbSe the lattice thermal conductivity of PbSe0.85Te0.15 is significantly decreased to its amorphous limit of 0.5 W m-1 K-1. Consequently, a highest peak ZT of 1.7 at 900 K and a record high average ZT of ∼1 (400-900 K) for a PbSe-based system are achieved in the composition Pb0.95Na0.02Cd0.03Se0.85Te0.15, which are ∼70% and ∼50% higher than those of Pb0.98Na0.02Se control sample, respectively.

Enhancement of thermoelectric properties by Na doping in Te-free p-type AgSbSe2.

AgSbSe2 possesses extremely low thermal conductivity and high Seebeck coefficient, but the low electronic conductivity leads to a low ZT value. In this paper, Na is used to substitute Sb to improve the electronic conductivity. The results show that Na doping not only improves the power factor caused by the enhanced carrier concentration, but also decreases the thermal conductivity due to point defects, nanoscale stacking faults and Na-rich precipitate. Consequently, a high ZT value of 0.92 is achieved in the AgSb0.99Na0.01Se2 sample.