Developmental Differentiations of Major Maize Stemborers Due to Global Warming in Temperate and Tropical Climates.

While many insects are in decline due to global warming, the effect of rising temperatures on crop insect pests is uncertain. A capacity to understand future changes in crop pest populations remains critical to ensure food security. Using temperature-dependent mathematical models of the development of four maize stemborers in temperate and tropical regions, we evaluated the potential impacts of different climate change scenarios on development time. While recognizing the limitations of the temperature-dependent development rate approach, we found that global warming could either be beneficial or detrimental to pest development, depending on the optimal temperature for the development of the species and scenarios of climate change. Expected responses range from null development to 1.5 times faster development than expected today. These results suggest that in the medium term, the studied species could benefit from global warming with an accelerated development, while in the long term, their development could either be delayed or accelerated, which may impact their dynamics with implications on maize cultivation.

Competitive Plant-Mediated and Intraguild Predation Interactions of the Invasive Spodoptera frugiperda and Resident Stemborers Busseola fusca and Chilo partellus in Maize Cropping Systems in Kenya.

Following its recent invasion of African countries, fall armyworm (FAW), Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), now co-exists with resident stemborers such as Busseola fusca (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) and Chilo partellus (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) causing severe damage to maize crops. Due to niche overlap, interspecific interactions occur among the three species, but the mechanisms and degree remain unclear. In this study, we assessed plant-mediated intraspecific and interspecific interactions, predation in laboratory and semi-field settings, and larval field occurrence of S. frugiperda and the two stemborer species. Larval feeding assays to evaluate competitive plant-mediated interactions demonstrated that initial S. frugiperda feeding negatively affected subsequent stemborer larval feeding and survival, suggesting induction of herbivore-induced mechanisms by S. frugiperda, which deters establishment and survival of competing species. Predation assays showed that, at different developmental larval stages, second−sixth instars of S. frugiperda preyed on larvae of both B. fusca and C. partellus. Predation rates of S. frugiperda on stemborers was significantly higher than cannibalism of S. frugiperda and its conspecifics (p < 0.001). Cannibalism of S. frugiperda in the presence of stemborers was significantly lower than in the presence of conspecifics (p = 0.04). Field surveys showed a significantly higher number of S. frugiperda larvae than stemborers across three altitudinally different agroecological zones (p < 0.001). In conclusion, this study showed that the invasive S. frugiperda exhibited a clear competitive advantage over resident stemborers within maize cropping systems in Kenya. Our findings reveal some of the possible mechanisms employed by S. frugiperda to outcompete resident stemborers and provide crucial information for developing pest management strategies for these lepidopteran pests.

Agronomic Factors Influencing Fall Armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda) Infestation and Damage and Its Co-Occurrence with Stemborers in Maize Cropping Systems in Kenya.

Fall armyworm (FAW), Spodoptera frugiperda J.E Smith, (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) is a serious invasive pest of maize that has been established in Kenya since 2016. Little is known about its co-occurrence with resident stemborers, relative infestation and damage and how agronomic factors influence its infestation and damage in maize cropping systems across different agro-ecological zones. This study assessed FAW co-occurrence with resident stemborers, relative infestation and damage across three agro-ecological zones, and the effects of different agronomic practices on its infestation and damage in maize cropping systems in Kenya. A total of 180 maize farms were surveyed across three different agro-ecological zones. FAW infestation and damage was highest in lowlands compared to mid-altitude and high-altitude lands. Its population (eggs and larvae) dominated that of resident stemborers in maize fields. Maize grown under mixed cropping systems, with rainfed production and weeded frequently had low infestation and damage compared to those grown under monoculture, with irrigation and no weeding, respectively. Young vegetative maize plants were more infested and damaged compared to mature plants. Different maize varieties were found to have different infestation and damage levels with Pioneer having the least damage. These results demonstrate that agronomic practices play a role in influencing FAW infestation and damage in maize cropping systems. Further, the population of FAW is dominating that of stemborers in maize cropping systems in Kenya, four years after its invasion. Thus, agronomic practices need to be considered while designing sustainable agro-ecological-based management solutions for resource-constrained smallholder farmers.

Impact of invasive insects on native insect communities.

Several biophysical factors are leading to the loss of biodiversity, among them the dominance of exotic invasive species on native communities is important. Their dominance can lead to changes in the structure of insect communities, by competing and displacing native species to other crops or habitats. These changes can impact the herbivore's natural enemies in invaded areas by diverging them from suitable herbivores and altering their biological control process. The development of edible insects and derived products at an industrial scale can also have an impact on the local fauna by the risks of spillover and accidental release in nature. Several area-wide integrated pest management programs are also using the sterile insect technique to control insect pests and disease' vectors. This technique is becoming largely used; however, its application as 'non-intrusive to the environment' is controversial particularly when eradication is concerning species that are at the basis of food webs.

Genome-Wide Patterns of Bracovirus Chromosomal Integration into Multiple Host Tissues during Parasitism.

Bracoviruses are domesticated viruses found in parasitic wasp genomes. They are composed of genes of nudiviral origin that are involved in particle production and proviral segments containing virulence genes that are necessary for parasitism success. During particle production, proviral segments are amplified and individually packaged as DNA circles in nucleocapsids. These particles are injected by parasitic wasps into host larvae together with their eggs. Bracovirus circles of two wasp species were reported to undergo chromosomal integration in parasitized host hemocytes, through a conserved sequence named the host integration motif (HIM). Here, we used bulk Illumina sequencing to survey integrations of Cotesia typhae bracovirus circles in the DNA of its host, the maize corn borer (Sesamia nonagrioides), 7 days after parasitism. First, assembly and annotation of a high-quality genome for C. typhae enabled us to characterize 27 proviral segments clustered in proviral loci. Using these data, we characterized large numbers of chromosomal integrations (from 12 to 85 events per host haploid genome) for all 16 bracovirus circles containing a HIM. Integrations were found in four S. nonagrioides tissues and in the body of a caterpillar in which parasitism had failed. The 12 remaining circles do not integrate but are maintained at high levels in host tissues. Surprisingly, we found that HIM-mediated chromosomal integration in the wasp germ line has occurred accidentally at least six times during evolution. Overall, our study furthers our understanding of wasp-host genome interactions and supports HIM-mediated chromosomal integration as a possible mechanism of horizontal transfer from wasps to their hosts. IMPORTANCE Bracoviruses are endogenous domesticated viruses of parasitoid wasps that are injected together with wasp eggs into wasp host larvae during parasitism. Several studies have shown that some DNA circles packaged into bracovirus particles become integrated into host somatic genomes during parasitism, but the phenomenon has never been studied using nontargeted approaches. Here, we use bulk Illumina sequencing to systematically characterize and quantify bracovirus circle integrations that occur in four tissues of the Mediterranean corn borer (Sesamia nonagrioides) during parasitism by the Cotesia typhae wasp. Our analysis reveals that all circles containing a HIM integrate at substantial levels (from 12 to 85 integrations per host cell, in total) in all tissues, while other circles do not integrate. In addition to shedding new light on wasp-bracovirus-host interactions, our study supports HIM-mediated chromosomal integration of bracovirus as a possible source of wasp-to-host horizontal transfer, with long-term evolutionary consequences.

A deadly encounter: Alien invasive Spodoptera frugiperda in Africa and indigenous natural enemy, Cotesia icipe (Hymenoptera, Braconidae).

The invasion and wide spread of Spodoptera frugiperda represent real impediments to food security and the livelihood of the millions of maize and sorghum farming communities in the sub-Saharan and Sahel regions of Africa. Current management efforts for the pest are focused on the use of synthetic pesticides, which are often economically unviable and are extremely hazardous to the environment. The use of biological control offers a more economically and environmentally safer alternative. In this study, the performance of the recently described parasitoid, Cotesia icipe, against the pest was elucidated. We assessed the host stage acceptability by and suitability for C. icipe, as well as its ovigenic status. Furthermore, the habitat suitability for the parasitoid in the present and future climatic conditions was established using Maximum Entropy (MaxEnt) algorithm and the Genetic Algorithm for Rule-set Prediction (GARP). Cotesia icipe differentially accepted the immature stages of the pest. The female acceptance of 1st and 2nd instar larvae for oviposition was significantly higher with more than 60% parasitism. No oviposition on the egg, 5th and 6th larval instars, and pupal stages was observed. Percentage of cocoons formed, and the number of emerged wasps also varied among the larval stages. At initial parasitism, parasitoid progenies, time to cocoon formation and overall developmental time were significantly affected by the larval stage. Egg-load varied significantly with wasp age, with six-day-old wasps having the highest number of mature eggs. Ovigeny index of C. icipe was 0.53. Based on the models, there is collinearity in the ecological niche of the parasitoid and the pest under current and future climate scenarios. Eastern, Central and parts of coastal areas of western Africa are highly suitable for the establishment of the parasitoid. The geographic distribution of the parasitoid would remain similar under future climatic conditions. In light of the findings of this study, we discuss the prospects for augmentative and classical biological control of S. frugiperda with C. icipe in Africa.

A system dynamics model for pests and natural enemies interactions.

Stemborers (Busseola fusca, Sesamia calamistis and Chilo partellus), the fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda) and associated parasitoids constitute an interacting system in maize fields in Kenya. This work aims at developing and evaluating models that represent the evolution of those interactions by applying system thinking and system dynamics approaches with its archetypes [causal loop diagram (CLD), reinforcing (R) and balancing (B)] to analyse the population of these multi-species systems. The software Vensim PLE 8.0.9 was used to implement the models and carry out the simulations of single- and multi-species systems. The results showed that when a single pest species with its associated parasitoids interact with the host plant, the species was able to establish and sustain by cyclical relationship between populations of the pest and the associated parasitoids. However, in multi- pest species systems, dominance of S. frugiperda and C. partellus over B. fusca and S. calamistis was observed, but without extinction. However, there was a likelihood for B. fusca being displaced by C. partellus. Overall, the models predict the co-existence of fall armyworm with stemborer species as an additional pest of maize in Africa that need to be considered henceforth in designing IPM strategies in maize.

Quantitative trait loci involved in the reproductive success of a parasitoid wasp.

Dissecting the genetic basis of intraspecific variations in life history traits is essential to understand their evolution, notably for potential biocontrol agents. Such variations are observed in the endoparasitoid Cotesia typhae (Hymenoptera: Braconidae), specialized on the pest Sesamia nonagrioides (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Previously, we identified two strains of C. typhae that differed significantly for life history traits on an allopatric host population. To investigate the genetic basis underlying these phenotypic differences, we used a quantitative trait locus (QTL) approach based on restriction site-associated DNA markers. The characteristic of C. typhae reproduction allowed us generating sisters sharing almost the same genetic content, named clonal sibship. Crosses between individuals from the two strains were performed to generate F2 and F8 recombinant CSS. The genotypes of 181 clonal sibships were determined as well as the phenotypes of the corresponding 4,000 females. Informative markers were then used to build a high-quality genetic map. These 465 markers spanned a total length of 1,300 cM and were organized in 10 linkage groups which corresponded to the number of C. typhae chromosomes. Three QTLs were detected for parasitism success and two for offspring number, while none were identified for sex ratio. The QTLs explained, respectively, 27.7% and 24.5% of the phenotypic variation observed. The gene content of the genomic intervals was investigated based on the genome of C. congregata and revealed 67 interesting candidates, as potentially involved in the studied traits, including components of the venom and of the symbiotic virus (bracovirus) shown to be necessary for parasitism success in related wasps.

Influence of Temperature on the Interaction for Resource Utilization Between Fall Armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), and a Community of Lepidopteran Maize Stemborers Larvae.

Intra- and interspecific interactions within communities of species that utilize the same resources are characterized by competition or facilitation. The noctuid stemborers, Busseola fusca and Sesamia calamistis, and the crambid stemborer, Chilo partellus were the most important pests of maize in sub-Saharan Africa before the recent "invasion" of fall armyworm (FAW), Spodoptera frugiperda, which currently seriously limits maize yields in Africa. This new pest is interacting with the stemborer community at the larval stage in the use of maize resources. From a work done by Ntiri et al. [13] on the influence of temperature on the larval intra- and interspecific resources utilization within the community of Lepidoptera stemborers involving B. fusca, S. calamistis, and C. partellus, there is a need to update this study by adding the new pest, S. frugiperda, in order to understand the effect of temperature on the larval interactions of all these four species under the context of climate change. The influence of temperature on intra- and interspecific larval interactions was studied in the same protocol of Ntiri et al. [13] using artificial stems kept at different constant temperatures (15 °C, 20 °C, 25 °C, and 30 °C) in an incubator and assessing survival and relative growth rates of each species in single and multi-species experiments. After the inclusion of FAW into the experiments, with regard to relative growth rates, both intra- and interspecific competition was observed among all four species. With regard to survival rates, cannibalism can also explain the intra- and interspecific interactions observed among all four species. Interspecific competition was stronger between the stemborers than between the FAW and the stemborers. Similar to lepidopteran stemborers, temperature affected both survival and relative growth rates of the FAW as well. Regardless of the temperature, C. partellus was superior in interspecific interactions shown by higher relative growth and survival rates. The results suggest that the FAW will co-exist with stemborer species along entire temperature gradient, though competition and/or cannibalism with them is weak. In addition, temperature increases caused by climate change is likely to confer an advantage to C. partellus over the fall armyworm and the other noctuids.

Draft Genome of Busseola fusca, the Maize Stalk Borer, a Major Crop Pest in Sub-Saharan Africa.

The maize stalk borer, Busseola fusca, is an important Lepidopteran pest of cereal crops in Central, East, and Southern Africa. Crop losses due to B. fusca feeding activity vary by region, but can result in total crop loss in areas with high levels of infestation. Genomic resources provide critical insight into the biology of pest species and can allow for the development of effective management tools and strategies to mitigate their impact on agriculture. To this end, we sequenced, assembled, and annotated the genome of B. fusca. The total assembled genome size was 492.9 Mb with 19,417 annotated protein-coding genes. Using a comparative approach, we identified a putative expansion in the Chorion gene family, which is involved in the formation of the egg shell structure. Our analysis revealed high repeat content within the B. fusca genome, with LTR sequences comprising the majority of the repetitive sequence. We hope genomic resources will provide a foundation for future work aimed at developing an integrated pest management strategy to reduce B. fusca's impact on food security.

Carry-Over Niches for Lepidopteran Maize Stemborers and Associated Parasitoids during Non-Cropping Season.

Sources of infestation are the key elements to be considered in the development of habitat management techniques for the control of maize stemborers. Several wild plants, grasses mostly, have been identified that serve as hosts for stemborers and their parasitoids during the off-season when maize is not present in the field. However, their abundance is much lower in wild plants compared to cultivated fields. Thus, the role of wild plants as a reservoir for cereal stemborers and their parasitoids is still controversial, particularly in agro-ecosystems with reduced wild habitat. We studied the occurrence of different maize stemborers and associated parasitoids in maize stem residues and wild grasses during non-cropping seasons as potential carry-over populations to subsequent early season maize plants. Surveys were conducted in the central region of Kenya during long and short dry seasons in maize residues and wild grasses as well as during the two rainy seasons in maize plants at earlier and late whorl stages during the years of 2017 and 2018. Wild habitat had a higher species diversity than maize residues habitat, but maize residues had a higher abundance of maize stemborer species, such as Busseola fusca, Sesamia calamistis, and Chilo partellus, and of associated parasitoid species (i.e., Cotesia flavipes and Cotesia sesamiae) than wild plants. Our surveys, complemented by field parasitoid releases of C. flavipes and C. sesamiae, indicated that maize residues constitute a better refugia reservoir not only of the maize stemborers but also of C. flavipes and C. sesamiae during non-cropping seasons as compared to wild plants and, thus, might constitute in this region the main source of both stemborers and C. flavipes/C. sesamiae carry-over in maize plants during the subsequent cropping season. Thus, systematic destruction of maize residues would not help the biological control of lepidopteran stemborers. This is particularly true in areas with reduced wild habitat.

Assortments of Digestive Enzymes Induced in First Instar Larvae of Busseola fusca Feeding on Different Plants.

The stem borer Busseola fusca (Fuller) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) is an important pest of maize and sorghum in sub-Saharan Africa. This insect has oligophagous feeding habits, feeding mostly on maize and sorghum with a narrow range of wild Poaceous plant species. We hypothesised that first instar B. fusca larvae, the critical stage for successful establishment on a host plant, can establish and then grow on a particular plant as a result of induction of a complement of digestive enzymes that mediates host acceptance at first instars. A fast semi-quantitative analysis of potentially digestive enzymatic activities present in the first larvae previously fed for 4 days on leaves of host and non-host plants was performed using the API-ZYM kit system able to detect a multiplex of enzyme activities. Regardless of the plant species, the larvae exhibited higher activities of the carbohydrate metabolising enzymes than of aminopeptidases and proteases. In addition, highest activities of carbohydrates degrading enzymes were exhibited by larvae that consumed leaves of the most preferred plant species of B. fusca. Conversely, esterases were only detected in neonate larvae that consumed leaves of the less preferred and non-host plants. No alkaline phosphatase and lipase activities were detected. The significance of these results was discussed in terms of food requirements of first instar larvae when settling on a plant.

Spatio-Temporal Interactions Between Maize Lepidopteran Stemborer Communities and Possible Implications From the Recent Invasion of Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) in Sub-Saharan Africa.

Spatio-temporal dynamics of multi-species pest communities and the interactions between them influence the structure of pest complex that attack crops. In East and Southern Africa, cereal crops, especially maize, is attacked by a complex of lepidopteran stemborer species made up of Busseola fusca (Fuller) and Sesamia calamistis Hampson (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), and Chilo partellus (Swinhoe) (Lepidoptera: Crambidae). There is inadequate information on the extent of single- and multi-species infestations by this pest complex, their current spatio-temporal variations, and the primary abiotic factors that influence these. Furthermore, the recent invasion of the fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda J.E. Smith, in sub-Saharan Africa will likely influence this stemborer community structure. Sampling was conducted in maize fields to record stemborer species and larval numbers from infested plants, in 28 localities found in six agro-ecological zones (AEZs) of Kenya and parts of Tanzania, as well as in one locality in the mid-altitudes where the three stemborer species occurred together. Both single- and multi-species stemborer communities characterized infestation of maize at field and plant levels, but varied in proportions between the AEZs. Infestation patterns and larval densities varied between seasons at mid-locality stemborer communities followed a clustered distribution pattern. Temperature was the most significant abiotic factor influencing the composition of stemborer communities at all spatial scales. Rainfall was significant only at the local scale. Results are discussed in relation to current stemborer community structures in maize fields and what the likely potential implications are, in the light of climate change and the recent establishment of the fall armyworm in Africa.

α-Amylase Mediates Host Acceptance in the Braconid Parasitoid Cotesia flavipes.

Foraging parasitoids use chemical signals in host recognition and selection processes. Although, the volatiles play a relevant role in the localization by parasitoids of their hosts feeding on plants, the host identification process for acceptance occurs mainly during contact between the parasitoid and its host where host products related to feeding activities, fecal pellets and oral secretions, play a crucial role. The purpose of this study was to identify the nature of the contact kairomone(s) that mediate the acceptance for oviposition of the parasitoid Cotesia flavipes Cameron (Hymenoptera, Braconidae), which was released in Kenya in 1993 to control the invasive crambid Chilo partellus (Swinhoe). Using host and non-hosts of C. flavipes, we showed that it is mainly the oral secretions of the larvae that harbour the active compound(s) that mediate host acceptance for oviposition by C. flavipes. Using an integration of behavioral observations and biochemical approaches, the active compound of the oral secretions was identified as an α-amylase. Using synthetized α-amylases from Drosophila melanogaster (an insect model for which syntheses of active and inactive α-amylases are available), we observed that the conformation of the enzyme rather than its catalytic site as well as its substrate and its degradation product is responsible for host acceptance and oviposition mediation of C. flavipes females. The results suggest that the α-amylase from oral secretions of the caterpillar host is a good candidate for an evolutionary solution to host acceptance for oviposition in C. flavipes.

Systematics and biology of Cotesia typhae sp. n. (Hymenoptera, Braconidae, Microgastrinae), a potential biological control agent against the noctuid Mediterranean corn borer, Sesamia nonagrioides.

Many parasitoid species are subjected to strong selective pressures from their host, and their adaptive response may result in the formation of genetically differentiated populations, called host races. When environmental factors and reproduction traits prevent gene flow, host races become distinct species. Such a process has recently been documented within the Cotesia flavipes species complex, all of which are larval parasitoids of moth species whose larvae are stem borers of Poales. A previous study on the African species C. sesamiae, incorporating molecular, ecological and biological data on various samples, showed that a particular population could be considered as a distinct species, because it was specialized at both host (Sesamia nonagrioides) and plant (Typha domingensis) levels, and reproductively isolated from other C. sesamiae. Due to its potential for the biological control of S. nonagrioides, a serious corn pest in Mediterranean countries and even in Iran, we describe here Cotesia typhae Fernandez-Triana sp. n. The new species is characterized on the basis of morphological, molecular, ecological and geographical data, which proved to be useful for future collection and rapid identification of the species within the species complex. Fecundity traits and parasitism success on African and European S. nonagrioides populations, estimated by laboratory studies, are also included.

Can toxicants used against cotton mealybug Phenacoccus solenopsis be compatible with an encyrtid parasitoid Aenasius bambawalei under laboratory conditions?

The cotton mealybug, Phenacoccus solenopsis Tinsley (Sternorrhyncha: Pseudococcidae) is a serious pest of various cultivated plants in Pakistan. Recent reports show that the parasitoid Aenasius bambawalei Hayat (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) is a good biocontrol agent of the pest. Compatibleness is important in any IPM programme, and the insecticide used must have little or no effects on the biological control agent. This study investigated the compatibility of neem treatments and a commercial insecticide, imidacloprid on A. bambawalei. Bioassays were laid out in a completely randomized design (CRD) under laboratory conditions. Results showed that the adult stage of the parasitoid was more susceptible to the commercial insecticide imidacloprid than the concealed pupal stage. Moreover, on the basis of the International Organization for Biological Control (IOBC) toxicity categories of the commercial insecticide, imidacloprid was moderately toxic throughout the study period (Ex >80%) while neem was slightly toxic after 24 h of use (Ex <80%). Results also suggest that A. bambawalei release should be delayed for at least 1 week after neem treatments. Because imidacloprid destroys A. bambawalei, it might cause resurgence of P. solenopsis; thus, farmers should avoid integrating the insecticide in the control of P. solenopsis.

Relationships of Reproductive Traits With the Phylogeny of the African Noctuid Stem Borers.

The display of the reproductive behavior in most noctuid Lepidoptera follows a diel periodicity and is limited to a precise period of either the day or the night. These behavioral traits and the sex pheromone chemistry can be species specific and thus might be linked to the phylogeny. The objective of this study was to test the relationship of these reproductive traits with phylogeny. The study was undertaken using eight closely related species of noctuid stem borers, which are easy to rear under artificial conditions, namely, Busseola fusca, B. nairobica, B. sp. nr. segeta, Manga melanodonta, M. sp. nr. nubifera, Pirateolea piscator, Sesamia calamistis, and S. nonagrioides. For each species, the adult emergence period, the mating time, and the oviposition period were estimated, referred as biological traits. The components of the sex pheromones emitted by the females of each species were also analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Among the biological traits measured, only those linked to the oviposition pattern (timing and egg loads per night) were significantly correlated with the phylogeny of these species. For the sex pheromone components, among the 13 components identified in all species, only four, namely, Z9-tetradecenyl acetate (Z9-TDA), Z11-TDA, E11-TDA, and Z11-hexadecenyl acetate (Z11-HDA), showed the highest significant correlations with the phylogeny. These results suggest that among the different reproductive traits evaluated, only few are phylogenetically constrained. Their involvement in the reinforcement of ecological speciation in noctuid stem borers is discussed.

Influence of Host-Plant Surface Chemicals on the Oviposition of the Cereal Stemborer Busseola Fusca.

The chemical composition of plant surfaces plays a role in selection of host plants by herbivorous insects. Once the insect reaches the plant, these cues determine host acceptance. Laboratory studies have shown that the stem borer Busseola fusca (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), an important pest of sorghum and maize in sub-Saharan Africa, is able to differentiate between host and non-host plant species. However, no information is available on the cues used by this insect to seek and accept the host plant. Thus, the role of surface phytochemical stimuli on host selection and oviposition by B. fusca was studied in the laboratory using two host plants, sorghum, Sorghum bicolor, and maize, Zea mays, and one non-host plant, Napier grass, Pennisetum purpureum. The numbers of eggs and egg masses deposited on the three plant species were compared first under no-choice and choice conditions. In both cases, more eggs and egg masses were laid on maize and sorghum than on the non-host. Artificial surrogate stems treated with a water or chloroform surface extract of each plant were then compared with surrogate stems treated with, respectively, water or chloroform as controls, under similar conditions. Surrogate stems treated with plant water extracts did not show an increase in oviposition when compared to controls, indicating that the major compounds in these extracts, i.e., simple sugars and free amino acids, are not significantly responsible for the oviposition preference. By contrast, a chloroform extract of sorghum enhanced oviposition on the surrogate stems compared to the control, while those of maize and Napier grass showed no significant effects. Analysis of the chloroform extract of sorghum showed higher amounts of α-amyrin, ß-amyrin, and n-nonacosane compared to those of maize and Napier grass. A blend of the three chemicals significantly increased oviposition compared to the chloroform-treated control, indicating that these compounds are part of the surface chemical signature of the plant responsible for host recognition and oviposition by B. fusca.

Influence of Temperature on Intra- and Interspecific Resource Utilization within a Community of Lepidopteran Maize Stemborers.

Competition or facilitation characterises intra- and interspecific interactions within communities of species that utilize the same resources. Temperature is an important factor influencing those interactions and eventual outcomes. The noctuid stemborers, Busseola fusca and Sesamia calamistis and the crambid Chilo partellus attack maize in sub-Saharan Africa. They often occur as a community of interacting species in the same field and plant at all elevations. The influence of temperature on the intra- and interspecific interactions among larvae of these species, was studied using potted maize plants exposed to varying temperatures in a greenhouse and artificial stems kept at different constant temperatures (15°C, 20°C, 25°C and 30°C) in an incubator. The experiments involved single- and multi-species infestation treatments. Survival and relative growth rates of each species were assessed. Both intra- and interspecific competitions were observed among all three species. Interspecific competition was stronger between the noctuids and the crambid than between the two noctuids. Temperature affected both survival and relative growth rates of the three species. Particularly at high temperatures, C. partellus was superior in interspecific interactions shown by higher larval survival and relative growth rates. In contrast, low temperatures favoured survival of B. fusca and S. calamistis but affected the relative growth rates of all three species. Survival and relative growth rates of B. fusca and S. calamistis in interspecific interactions did not differ significantly across temperatures. Temperature increase caused by future climate change is likely to confer an advantage on C. partellus over the noctuids in the utilization of resources (crops).

Characteristics of soils in selected maize growing sites along altitudinal gradients in East African highlands.

Maize is the main staple crop in the East African Mountains. Understanding how the edaphic characteristics change along altitudinal gradients is important for maximizing maize production in East African Highlands, which are the key maize production areas in the region. This study evaluated and compared the levels of some macro and micro-elements (Al, Ca, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, Na and P) and other soil parameters (pH, organic carbon content, soil texture [i.e. % Sand, % Clay and % Silt], cation exchange capacity [CEC], electric conductivity [EC], and water holding capacity [HC]). Soil samples were taken from maize plots along three altitudinal gradients in East African highlands (namely Machakos Hills, Taita Hills and Mount Kilimanjaro) characterized by graded changes in climatic conditions. For all transects, pH, Ca, K and Mg decreased with the increase in altitude. In contrast, % Silt, organic carbon content, Al and water holding capacity (HC) increased with increasing altitude. The research provides information on the status of the physical-chemical characteristics of soils along three altitudinal ranges of East African Highlands and includes data available for further research.