Profile of gym-goers who do not use performance-enhancement substances.

Introduction: Currently the use of prohibited performance-enhancing substances (PES) in fitness and gym settings is a public health concern as adverse health consequences are emerging. Understanding the characteristics of gym-goers who do not use these substances could lead to an important complement to the ongoing research about risk factors for PES use. The aim of this study was to identify the profile of PES non-use in gym-goers. Methods: In total, 453 gym-goers (mean age = 35.64 years; SD = 13.08 - measure of central tendency location and measure of absolute dispersion, respectively) completed an online survey assessing sociodemographic factors, exercise characteristics, gym modalities, peers, social influence, attitudes, subjective norms, beliefs, intentions, and self-reported use of PES. Results: Decision Trees showed that being a woman, training less frequently, not practicing bodybuilding and having a negative intention to consume PES were identified as characteristics of non-users of PES. Discussion: These results may support evidence-based anti-doping interventions to prevent abusive use of PES in the fitness context.

Assessing ethical behavior and self-control in elite ultimate championships: a cross-sectional study using the spirit of the game scoring system.

Introduction: Implementing a self-refereeing system presents a unique challenge in sports education, particularly in academic and training settings where officiated sports prevail. However, Ultimate Frisbee stands out by entrusting players with both athlete and referee roles, introducing distinctive ethical complexities. This manuscript is intended to evaluate ethical behavior and self-control within the Spirit of the Game (SOTG) scoring system in Elite Ultimate. To address these, Ultimate employs the (SOTG) scoring system, integral since the sport's inception in the late 1980s. SOTG aims to enhance and evaluate athletes' ethical conduct. This study evaluates SOTG's effectiveness in elite-level Ultimate, analyzing variations across divisions and age groups in three high-level tournaments. Methods: Using a cross-sectional design, data were collected from five international Ultimate tournaments in 2022. Teams spanned diverse age groups (under 17 to over 50) and divisions (women's, mixed, open). Post-match, teams assessed opponents' SOTG in five domains: Rules knowledge, fouls, fairness, attitude/self-control, and communication. Ratings used a 5-point Likert scale ("poor" to "excellent"). An overall SOTG score was calculated by aggregating domain scores. Results: Our study consistently revealed high SOTG scores, reflecting strong sportsmanship. "Positive attitude and self-control" consistently ranked highest, while "Knowledge and use of the rules" scored lowest. Divisional differences in SOTG were statistically insignificant. Notably, WMUCC2022 (participants aged 30+) had significantly higher SOTG scores, possibly indicating age-related self-control improvement or evolving sport culture. Lower rules knowledge scores may stem from linguistic translation challenges. Conclusion: Self-refereeing promotes ethical behavior across divisions and age groups. SOTG underscores sportsmanship's importance and aligns with International Olympic Committee (IOC) and with Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly SDG 3, 4, 5 and 16 fostering a fairer, healthier, and more peaceful world.

Psychosocial factors associated with lower extremity re-injury risk in soccer players: Contribution of self- confidence, functional attention, and re-injury anxiety.

CONTEXT: Despite the availability of specialized assessment tools, psychological readiness is usually not considered when deciding to return to sport (RTS) after sport injury. Re-injury anxiety, self-confidence, and functional attention may be associated with sport re-injury, making it important to evaluate these factors before RTS. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to predict lower extremity re-injury in soccer players using self- confidence, functional attention, and re-injury anxiety as predictive variables. DESIGN: Prospective cohort study. SETTING: Laboratory. PATIENTS OR OTHER PARTICIPANTS: Sixty-two male soccer players, who were older than 18 years of age, suffered from lower extremity injuries, had completed the rehabilitation program, and were ready to RTS. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Prior to returning to the sport, participants completed a pre-season questionnaire on their previous injuries, self-confidence, re-injury anxiety, and level of functional attention. The primary outcome measured was the risk of re-injury during the upcoming competitive season, and logistic regression was utilized to calculate odds ratios (OR) with 95% confidence intervals to determine the association between each risk factor and re- injury. RESULTS: Overall re-injury rate was 5.56 injuries per 1000 hours of play. Self-confidence scores ≤ 47 increased the risk of re-injury by 2.26 times (relative risk, 2.26; 95% CI, 1.31-3.91; OR, 5.00; 95% CI, 1.56-16.04) and each unit increase in self-confidence score reduced the risk of re-injury by 10% (OR:0.90; CI: 0.82-0.99, p=0.03). Regarding re-injury anxiety, a score >22 was associated with 2.43 times the risk of re-injury (relative risk, 2.43; 95% CI, 1.44-4.13; OR, 6.46; 95% CI, 1.93-21.69) and each unit increase in re-injury anxiety score increased the risk of injury by 45% (OR:1.45; CI: 1.13-0.87, p=0.004). CONCLUSIONS: Increased re-injury anxiety and decreased self-confidence are associated with higher odds of lower extremity re-injury in male soccer players. To reduce the risk of re-injury, athletic trainers and sport psychologists should take these psychological factors into account when evaluating the psychological readiness of soccer players with a history of lower extremity injury to RTS.

Predictors of Running-Related Injury Among Recreational Runners: A Prospective Cohort Study of the Role of Perfectionism, Mental Toughness, and Passion in Running.

BACKGROUND: The health benefits associated with recreational running are challenged by the occurrence of running-related injuries (RRIs). Effective preventive measures require knowledge of sport injury etiology. Psychological factors such as perfectionism, mental toughness, and passion are believed to predispose to sports injury by influencing training behaviors, motivation to run, and suppression of feelings of fatigue and pain. Yet their association with RRIs are understudied. HYPOTHESIS: Perfectionism, mental toughness, and passion predict an increased risk of RRIs in recreational runners. STUDY DESIGN: Prospective cohort study. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level 3. METHODS: A total of 143 recreational runners (age 34.9 ± 13.9 years, 37% women) with a response rate of 76.5% answered an online questionnaire about their characteristics, running behaviors, and psychological variables (perfectionism, mental toughness, and running passion) as well as a sports injury survey. Then, as a primary outcome, RRIs were recorded biweekly for 6 months. The incidence of injuries was expressed as RRI per 1000 hours of running. The association between predictive factors and RRIs was estimated using logistic regression. RESULTS: The incidence of RRIs during follow-up was 5.16 per 1000 hours of running. The knee was the location injured most often (26.4%), followed by the foot (18.9%) and lower leg (13.2%). Higher obsessive passion (OP) for running (odds ratio [OR], 1.11; 95% CI, 1.04-1.20) and perfectionistic concerns (OR, 1.22; CI,1.05-1.41) were associated with a greater risk of RRIs, as were previous injury (OR, 2.49; CI,1.10-5.70), weekly running distance (OR,1.10; CI, 1.03-1.16), and both supinated (OR, 4.51; CI, 1.11-18.30) and pronated (OR, 3.55; CI, 1.29-9.80) foot type. Following a running schedule (OR, 0.24; CI, 0.09-0.66) was associated with a lower risk of RRIs. CONCLUSION: History of previous RRI, pronated and supinated foot type, weekly running distance, perfectionistic concerns, and OP increased RRI risk in recreational runners. Following a running schedule was a protective factor. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Multiple factors, including runners' psychological characteristics, predict RRIs. These findings can inform the development of injury risk management strategies.

Ultimate Frisbee Players: Characteristics according to Their Competitive Level and Spirit of the Game.

In Ultimate Frisbee, players are responsible for administering and reinforcing adherence to the rules of the game. As a self-refereed sport, UF relies upon the Spirit of the Game (SOTG). This study aimed to profile the experience, to ascertain the training history of the sport, the participation and goal orientations of international Ultimate Frisbee players in the European Beach Ultimate Championship, and to evaluate the contribution of these variables in a discriminant function to classify players according to SOTG level and competitive level. The sample consisted of 160 players [females 33.8% (29.3 ± 7.2 years); males 66.2% (37.6 ± 9.7 years)] who competed in the European Beach Ultimate Championship, 2019. Factorial ANOVA was used to test the effect of sex, competitive level and SOTG level (measured by the sum of the scores obtained in five questions addressing the following domains: (1) Knowledge and use of the rules; (2) Fouls and body contact; (3) Fair-mindedness; (4) Positive attitude and self-control; (5) Communication. The results revealed that sex was not a consistent source of SOTG level variation among players. In each competitive level, those with high SOTG levels obtained lower European Beach Ultimate Championship classification (t = 5.73 to 6.55, p < 0.001, d = 1.28 to 2.06), higher SOTG classification (t = −13.21 to −7.04, p < 0.001, d = 1.28 to 2.85), and better evaluation for fouls and body contact (t = 2.76 to 9.23, p < 0.05, d = 0.86 to 1.99) and for positive attitude (t = 5.88 to 7.43, p < 0.001, d = 2.06 to 2.57), than regular SOTG level players. Players of different competitive levels demonstrated similar SOTG results. These findings provide important information to coaches, physical education teachers and sport consultants.

Assessment and Impact of the Risk of Exposure of Portuguese Biomedical Scientists in the Context of COVID-19.

Currently, the main public health concern worldwide is the COVID-19 pandemic, caused by SARS-CoV-2, which was recently discovered and described. Due to its high pathogenicity and infectiousness, it is necessary to determine the risk healthcare professionals face every day while dealing with infected patients and contaminated biological samples. The purpose of this study was to assess Portuguese Biomedical Scientists' risk of COVID-19 exposure and related stress appraisals. One hundred and forty participants completed online versions of the WHO's Risk Assessment and Management of Exposure Survey and the Stress Appraisal Measure. Participants worked mainly in outpatient settings (45%), and in emergency services (28%). Twenty three percent of participants were exposed to COVID-19 through community exposure, and 39% through occupational exposure. Although 95% reported using personal protective equipment (PPE), 83.6% were at high risk of infection. However, the use of some types of PPE was related to the risk of exposure. Participants reported moderate perceptions of stress and threat, but also moderate perceptions of control over the situation. These results may contribute to a more efficient risk management of these professionals and prevent disease transmission in hospitals and communities.

Refining the Short Version of the Leadership Scale for Sports: Factorial Validation and Measurement Invariance.

The purpose of this investigation was to examine the factorial validity and measurement invariance of the short version of the Leadership Scale for Sports (LSS; Chelladurai & Saleh, 1980): coaches' perceptions of their own behavior, athletes' preferences and athletes' perceptions of their coaches' behavior. This validation will allow researchers to minimize time demands on participants. Three independent samples of athletes (n1 = 373; n2 = 817; n3 = 246) and two samples of coaches (n1 = 115; n2 = 351) were studied to examine the factorial validity and measurement invariance of the 25-item version of the LSS (LSS-25; Chiu et al., 2016). Findings indicated that a 15-item version (LSS-15) fits the data better than the LSS-25. The LSS-15 showed factorial validity and proved to have adequate reliability, convergent validity and discriminant validity. Multiple-group confirmatory factor analysis showed that its factor structure was invariant across two independent samples and across gender for athletes' perceived and preferred versions. Significant relationships between the LSS-15 subscales and athlete satisfaction also demonstrate criterion validity. These findings support a valid and reliable alternative to the original LSS long-form, especially in applied settings when time constraints require a brief measure of leadership or when study designs include multiple variables.

Adding Mindfulness Practice to Exercise Therapy for Female Recreational Runners With Patellofemoral Pain: A Randomized Controlled Trial.

CONTEXT: Considering current models that highlight the role of psychological components in pain management, mindfulness practice may be an effective strategy in the management of pain. OBJECTIVE: To examine the effects of adding an 8-week mindfulness program to exercise therapy on the perceptions of pain severity, knee function, fear of movement, and pain catastrophizing of female recreational runners with patellofemoral pain (PFP). DESIGN: Randomized controlled clinical trial. SETTING: University laboratory. PATIENTS OR OTHER PARTICIPANTS: Thirty female runners (age = 28.3 ± 7.08 years) with PFP were randomly assigned to the exercise or mindfulness-exercise group. INTERVENTION(S): The exercise-only group followed a protocol (18 weeks, 3 sessions/wk) that featured training modifications to help control injury-related symptoms. The mindfulness-exercise group received an 8-week mindfulness intervention in addition to the exercise protocol. The mindfulness component started 4 weeks before the exercise component; therefore, the 2 components overlapped during the first 4 weeks of the intervention. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S): Usual pain, pain during stepping, and pain during running were assessed using visual analog scales. Functional limitations of the knee were assessed using the Knee Outcome Survey. Fear of movement, pain catastrophizing, and coping strategies were measured via the Tampa Scale for Kinesiophobia, the Pain Catastrophizing Scale, and the Coping Strategies Questionnaire, respectively. These outcomes were assessed at baseline, at week 9, and after 18 weeks. RESULTS: Pain during running, pain during stepping, and functional limitations of the knee were less for the mindfulness-exercise group than for the exercise-only group (P values < .05). The mindfulness-exercise group reported greater perceived treatment effects than the exercise-only group (P < .05). Pain catastrophizing was less and coping strategies were more favorable for mindfulness-exercise participants than for exercise-only participants (P values < .05). CONCLUSIONS: Mindfulness practice can be an effective adjunct to exercise therapy in the rehabilitation of PFP in recreational female runners.

Longitudinal Association between Sport Participation and Depressive Symptoms after a Two-Year Follow-Up in Mid-Adolescence.

Sport participation has been advocated as a strategy to improve adolescents' mental health. However, how these variables evolve during the adolescent years is uncertain. The objective of the present work was to examine the longitudinal associations of sports participation and depressive symptoms in adolescents. Participants were 525 Spanish adolescents (50.3% boys), aged between 12 and 15 years old (M = 13.45, SD = 0.69). They were enrolled in 18 secondary schools located in Andalusia (Spain) in the first two academic years of Compulsory Secondary Education. Data were collected in three waves, separated by one year, by administering self-report measures of depressive symptoms and sport participation. Repeated measures analyses of variance were conducted to examine the change in depressive symptoms and sport participation, and a latent growth curve model was tested to examine the change in depressive symptoms controlling initial sport participation and gender. At each wave, more frequent sport participation was related to lower depressive symptoms. Two years after the first assessment, adolescents became more depressed but not more active. Less active adolescents had more depressive symptoms in each assessment time. At all moments of assessment, girls were less active and reported more depressive symptoms. Moreover, girls had a higher increase in depressive symptoms than boys. Promotion of physical activity (PA) as a mental health strategy needs to consider gender differences as boys and girls have different patterns of presentation of depressive symptoms throughout adolescence.

Validation and adaptation of the Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale (PACES) in fitness group exercisers.

BACKGROUND: Recently, Mullen et al. (2011) presented an 8-item version of the Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale (PACES) that provides a valid instrument for assessing enjoyment in physical activity. The present paper investigated the psychometric properties of a Portuguese adaptation of PACES. METHODS: After a process of back-to-back translation into Portuguese, 395 members of fitness centers who ranged in age from 18 to 66 years (31.11 ± 8.90, mean ± SD) completed the translated version of the PACES. On average, participants had 3.2 years of experience in fitness group classes and practiced for approximately 3.3 times per week. RESULTS: An initial exploratory factor analysis (n = 139) revealed a unidimensional structure with factor loadings ranging from 0.79 to 0.89. Results also showed acceptable internal consistency. A confirmatory factor analysis in an independent sample (n = 256) provided additional support for the unidimensional structure of the questionnaire. In addition, moderate positive correlations between enjoyment and intrinsic and identified regulation, and moderate negative correlations between enjoyment and external and amotivation, demonstrate the convergent validity of the instrument. Finally, measurement invariance between 2 independent samples was also found. CONCLUSION: The 8-item Portuguese version of PACES is a valid and reliable instrument for measuring enjoyment of physical activity in Portuguese adult fitness exercisers, and it is therefore suitable to use as a measure of affect in exercise adherence interventions studies.

The Effects of a Mindfulness-Based Program on the Incidence of Injuries in Young Male Soccer Players.

The authors tested the effectiveness of a mindfulness-based program in reducing sport-injury incidence. A total of 168 young male elite soccer players were randomly assigned to mindfulness and control groups. The mindfulness group consisted of seven sessions based on the mindfulness-acceptance-commitment approach, while the control group consisted of seven presentations on sport-injury psychology. Athlete exposure and injury data were recorded during one season. State and trait mindfulness, sport anxiety, stress, and attention control of participants were assessed. Number of injuries, average of injuries per team, and days lost to injury in the mindfulness group were significantly lower than those in the control group. Mindfulness and attention control were lower and sport anxiety and stress were higher in injured players than in noninjured players. Psychological variables were associated with injury. Mindfulness training may reduce the injury risk of young soccer players due to improved mindfulness and attention control and reduced sport anxiety.

Perceptions of Parenting Practices and Psychological Variables of Elite and Sub-Elite Youth Athletes.

Drawing from the model of parental involvement in sport, the overall purpose was to examine the associations of perceptions of parenting practices (encouragement, reinforcement, instruction, and role modeling) and athletes' psychological variables (self-efficacy, social self-efficacy, self-regulation, and intrinsic motivation) of elite and sub-elite youth athletes. Participants were elite (n = 210) and sub-elite (n = 635) athletes aged between 14 and 18 years (M age = 16.58, SD = 1.33). Structural equation modeling analysis revealed that young elite athletes' perceptions of sport-related parenting practices are associated with their psychological skills and performance level in sport. Specifically, in comparison with their sub-elite peers, perceptions of parental encouragement had a significantly different strong effect on intrinsic motivation. Moreover, perceptions of parental modeling revealed different effects on performance level, as well as on intrinsic motivation, and self-regulation. These perceptions of parenting practices may promote a positive learning environment, resulting in an increased likelihood of achieving a high level of sport performance in comparison with their sub-elite peers.

Determinants of the Intention to Use Performance-Enhancing Substances Among Portuguese Gym Users.

The purpose of this study is to examine the determinants of the intentions to use prohibited performance-enhancing substances (PES) and to test the Theory of Planned Behavior's usefulness in predicting self-reported PES use in both genders. A convenience sample of Portuguese gym users (n = 453) completed an anonymous web-based survey. Structural equation modeling, multigroup analysis, and t-test with the Welch correction for heterokedastic variances were used. At the structural level, results support attitudes, beliefs, and subjective norms in predicting intentions to PES use in gym users, with subjective norms being its strongest predictor. Moreover, results showed a significant association between self-reported PES use and intentions to use. The predictive model was invariant across genders; however, compared to males, females believed less in the performance-enhancing effects of PES, were less prone to the influence of significant others, and had weaker intentions to use these substances. Psychological strategies should be based on subjective norms, alongside beliefs and attitudes, toward PES use as these variables influence the intention to use PES in this particular population.

Life Satisfaction in Adolescents: The Role of Individual and Social Health Assets.

The aim of this study is to explore the relationship between adolescents' life satisfaction and individual and social health assets. A nationally representative sample of 3,494 Portuguese adolescents (mean age = 14.94 ± 1.30 years; 53.6% girls) completed the Health Behavior in School-aged Children survey measuring a variety of health behaviors and beliefs. A sequential regression analysis was conducted with gender, individual assets (academic achievement, social competence, self-regulation and life objectives) and social assets (family support, peer support, parental monitoring and school connectedness) entered in separate steps. A second regression analysis was conducted with social assets entered before individual assets. The final model explained 18.3% of life satisfaction. School connectedness (ß = .198, p < .001) and family support (ß = .154, p < .001) were the strongest predictors of adolescents' life satisfaction followed by social competence (ß = .152, p < .001), academic achievement (ß = .116, p < .001) and self-regulation (ß = .064, p < .001). Social assets explained a larger variance of life satisfaction than individual assets when entered first in the regression (r2 = .134 and r2 = .119, respectively, p < .001). When entered last step in the regression analysis, social assets added more to life satisfaction's variance than when individual assets were added in the last step (r2 = .060 and r2 = .045, respectively, p < .001). These results reinforce the role social interaction and social capital models in the promotion of well-being.

Mediating Effects of Parents' Coping Strategies on the Relationship Between Parents' Emotional Intelligence and Sideline Verbal Behaviors in Youth Soccer.

The overall purpose of this study was to examine the mediating effects of parents' coping strategies on the relationship between parents' emotional intelligence and sideline verbal behaviors during their children's soccer games. Participants were 232 parents (120 mothers and 110 fathers) of youth soccer players age 9-13 years. Observations in situ were carried out at 30 soccer games during a soccer tournament. At the end of the game, parents were approached and asked to complete the Emotional Intelligence Scale and the Brief COPE scale. Structural-equation-modeling analyses revealed that adaptive and maladaptive coping mediated the relationship between regulation of emotion and parents' praise/encouragement, and negative and derogatory comments during the game. In addition, game result moderated the relationships between emotional intelligence, coping strategies, and parent behaviors. Emotional regulation and adaptive coping may promote desirable parent sideline behaviors and reduce undesirable behaviors.

Health complaints among adolescents: Associations with more screen-based behaviours and less physical activity.

In this study, we investigated the relationship between screen-based behaviours, physical activity, and health complaints (headaches, feeling low, irritability, and nervousness). Screen-based behaviour included TV viewing, computer use, and time spent playing video games. Data were collected from 4462 Portuguese adolescents (2394 girls) aged 11-16 years. Girls who reported engaging in more screen-based behaviour (hours/day) also reported having more headaches, feeling lower, being more irritable, and feeling more nervous. Boys who reported more screen time were more irritable. Physical activity (times/week) was negatively associated with reports of feeling nervous among girls, and with headaches, feeling low, irritability, and feeling nervous among boys. Considering that time spent using the computer is related with more health complaints, and physical activity was related with fewer health complaints among boys, it is important to develop strategies to reduce adolescents' computer screen time, and to promote physical activity.

Precompetitive achievement goals, stress appraisals, emotions, and coping among athletes.

Grounded in Lazarus's (1991, 1999, 2000) cognitive-motivational-relational theory of emotions, we tested a model of achievement goals, stress appraisals, emotions, and coping. We predicted that precompetitive achievement goals would be associated with appraisals, appraisals with emotions, and emotions with coping in our model. The mediating effects of emotions among the overall sample of 827 athletes and two stratified random subsamples were also explored. The results of this study support our proposed model in the overall sample and the stratified subsamples. Further, emotion mediated the relationship between appraisal and coping. Mediation analyses revealed that there were indirect effects of pleasant and unpleasant emotions, which indicates the importance of examining multiple emotions to reveal a more accurate representation of the overall stress process. Our findings indicate that both appraisals and emotions are just as important in shaping coping.

Managing pressure: patterns of appraisals and coping strategies of non-elite and elite athletes during competition.

The purpose of this study was to compare moment-to-moment appraisals and coping strategies of 4 non-elite and 2 elite male trap shooters during competitions and in particular during periods of competition perceived as critical to performance. Appraisals and coping patterns of trap shooters were captured via verbal reports of thinking provided between sets of shots during major competitions. Verbal reports were coded according to an appraisal and coping typology. Coded data as well as shooting performance data were subjected to a sequential analysis of probabilities of pairs of events. Fewer reports of negative appraisals (NEGAs) and more frequent reports of problem-focused coping (PFC) were observed among both elite athletes compared to non-elite athletes. After making a NEGA, non-elite shooters often progressed to the next target without attempting to cope, whereas elite shooters used both PFC and emotion-focused coping (EFC) before proceeding to the next target. After missing a target, the non-elite athletes used more EFC than expected. These results indicate that elite athletes are more likely to cope with NEGAs than non-elite athletes using a wider variety of coping strategies. Athletes might benefit from increased awareness of the potentially detrimental impact of NEGAs on performance and by integrating coping strategies within preparatory routines.

A conceptual framework for studying emotions-cognitions-performance linkage under conditions that vary in perceived pressure.

A unified conceptual framework, which integrates the structural components of human performance, such as emotional processes (i.e., feelings, mood), cognitive processes and structures (e.g., knowledge architecture, long-term working memory), motor processes (coordination, endurance), and the neurophysiologic basis of these structural components (i.e., activation of cortical areas) is introduced. Recent developments in the cognitive, neurological, expertise, and emotion sciences provide a sound evidence for this conceptualization. The unified conceptual framework enables a better understanding of human performance, and allows generating applications, which share scientific validity.