Unveiling the disease progression in developmental and epileptic encephalopathies: Insights from EEG and neuropsychology.

OBJECTIVE: Developmental and epileptic encephalopathies (DEEs) are neurological disorders characterized by developmental impairment and epilepsy. Our study aims to assess disease progression by comparing clinical findings, electroencephalography (EEG), and neuropsychological data from seizure onset to the last follow-up evaluation. METHODS: We retrospectively reviewed patients with genetic DEEs who were followed-up at the epilepsy unit of Bambino Gesù Children's Hospital, Rome. We collected information regarding gender, family history, genetic variant, age at onset and at last follow-up, neurological examination, type of seizure, drug resistance, occurrence of status epilepticus, and movement and cognitive and behavioral disorders. We compared EEG background activity, epileptiform abnormalities, and cognitive functions between seizure onset and the last follow-up evaluation using the McNemar-Bowker test (α = 5%). RESULTS: A total of 160 patients (94 female) were included. Genetic analysis revealed a spectrum of pathogenic variants, with SCN1A being the most prevalent (25%). The median age at seizure onset and at the last follow-up was 0.37 (interquartile range [IQR]: 0.09-0.75) and 8.54 years (IQR: 4.32-14.55), respectively. We documented a statistically significant difference in EEG background activity (p = .017) and cognitive impairment (p = .01) from seizure onset to the last follow-up evaluation. No significant differences were detected for epileptiform abnormalities (p = .2). In addition, high prevalence rates were observed for drug resistance (81.9%), movement disorders (60.6%), behavioral and autism spectrum disorders (45%), neurological deficits (31.3%), and occurrence of status epilepticus (23.1%). SIGNIFICANCE: Our study provides evidence that a clinical progression may appear in genetic DEEs, manifesting as development or worsening of cognitive impairment and disruption of EEG background activity. These results highlight the challenging clinical course and the importance of early intervention and personalized care in the management of patients with DEEs.

Epilepsy surgery below the age of 5 years: Are we still in time to preserve developmental and intellectual functions?

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study is to describe the pre- and post-operative developmental and intellectual functions in a cohort of patients who underwent surgery for drug-resistant epilepsy (DRE) before the age of 5 years. METHOD: We retrospectively reviewed the medical records and neurodevelopmental assessments of a cohort of 80 surgically treated pediatric patients with DRE. We included patients if they had at least one pre- and one post-surgical neuropsychological assessments; 27 met the inclusion criteria. We evaluated Developmental Quotient (DQ) and Intelligence Quotient (IQ) before and after surgery. We identified two groups based on psychological evaluation outcome: Group 1, with stable or improved developmental and intellectual functions, and Group 2, experiencing developmental and intellectual loss. RESULTS: The mean age at seizure onset was 1.2 ± 1.0 years, and the mean age at surgery was 2.9 ± 1.2 years. At the last follow-up (mean 4 years, SD ± 2), 19/27 (70%) patients were seizure- and drug-free; 18/27 patients (67%) fit in Group 1, and 9/27 (33%) fit in Group 2. The mean age at surgery was 2.6 years (SD ± 1.1; range 1.2-5.1) in Group 1 and 3.4 years in Group 2 (SD ± 1.1; range 1.6-5.0). Group 1 had a lower pre-operative DQ/IQ total score than Group 2 (median DQ/IQ respectively 82 vs 108, p = 0.05). Between pre- and post-assessments, we found that in Group 1, Performance scores improved (82.7 vs 102, p = 0.001), while in Group 2, the Total and Verbal scores worsened (respectively 108 vs 75, p = 0.008, and 100 vs 76, p = 0.021). SIGNIFICANCE: Our study's results emphasize the positive impact of surgery before the age of 5 years on developmental and intellectual outcomes. Despite limitations such as a small sample size, lack of a control group, and diverse etiologies, our findings support the crucial role of early intervention in preserving or enhancing developmental and intellectual functions in young patients with DRE. PLAIN LANGUAGE SUMMARY: This retrospective study, conducted at the Bambino Gesù Children Hospital in Italy, reports neuropsychological and developmental and/or cognitive data for children undergoing early epilepsy surgery (before the age of 5). It found that children with lower developmental or cognitive profiles gained the highest scores on post-operative neuropsychological evaluations. This study provides information on the potential benefits of early surgery in shortening the duration of epilepsy, preventing or arresting deterioration, and enhancing plasticity and recovery.

Morphometric network-based abnormalities correlate with psychiatric comorbidities and gene expression in PCDH19-related developmental and epileptic encephalopathy.

Protocadherin-19 (PCDH19) developmental and epileptic encephalopathy causes an early-onset epilepsy syndrome with limbic seizures, typically occurring in clusters and variably associated with intellectual disability and a range of psychiatric disorders including hyperactive, obsessive-compulsive and autistic features. Previous quantitative neuroimaging studies revealed abnormal cortical areas in the limbic formation (parahippocampal and fusiform gyri) and underlying white-matter fibers. In this study, we adopted morphometric, network-based and multivariate statistical methods to examine the cortex and substructure of the hippocampus and amygdala in a cohort of 20 PCDH19-mutated patients and evaluated the relation between structural patterns and clinical variables at individual level. We also correlated morphometric alterations with known patterns of PCDH19 expression levels. We found patients to exhibit high-significant reductions of cortical surface area at a whole-brain level (left/right pvalue = 0.045/0.084), and particularly in the regions of the limbic network (left/right parahippocampal gyri pvalue = 0.230/0.016; left/right entorhinal gyri pvalue = 0.002/0.327), and bilateral atrophy of several subunits of the amygdala and hippocampus, particularly in the CA regions (head of the left CA3 pvalue = 0.002; body of the right CA3 pvalue = 0.004), and differences in the shape of hippocampal structures. More severe psychiatric comorbidities correlated with more significant altered patterns, with the entorhinal gyrus (pvalue = 0.013) and body of hippocampus (pvalue = 0.048) being more severely affected. Morphometric alterations correlated significantly with the known expression patterns of PCDH19 (rvalue = -0.26, pspin = 0.092). PCDH19 encephalopathy represents a model of genetically determined neural network based neuropsychiatric disease in which quantitative MRI-based findings correlate with the severity of clinical manifestations and had have a potential predictive value if analyzed early.

Fenfluramine below the age of 2 years in Dravet syndrome: What about safety and efficacy?

Dravet syndrome (DS) is a rare developmental and epileptic encephalopathy. Infants with DS are especially vulnerable to the detrimental effects of prolonged and frequent seizures on development. Fenfluramine (FFA) is approved for the treatment of DS in patients aged 2 years and older. This study aims to evaluate the safety and efficacy of FFA in patients with DS younger than 2 years. We analyzed safety, tolerability, seizure, and neuropsychological outcome in a real-world setting. Developmental profile was investigated using Griffiths Mental Development Scales (GMDS). Five patients received FFA at a mean age of 14.9 months (9.6-18.6). Median follow-up was 13 months (interquartile range [IQR] = 12.9-24.4). All patients showed good tolerance to FFA. No significant variation of body mass index or echocardiographic issue was observed. Monthly median convulsive seizure frequency (MCSF) was 1.71 (IQR = 1.56-3.27) at the 6-month baseline period and .92 (IQR = .43-1.28) at last follow-up, with a median 54.43 (IQR = 40.91-60.83) percentage reduction in MCSF. Two of five patients had a performance improvement on GMDS subscales. Overall, the use of FFA below the age of 2 years in our small sample of patients was safe and represents a promising opportunity for seizure control and for protection of the neurodevelopmental outcome.

Insights into cognitive and behavioral comorbidities of SLC6A1-related epilepsy: five new cases and literature review.

Introduction: SLC6A1 pathogenic variants have been associated with epilepsy and neurodevelopmental disorders. The clinical phenotype includes different seizure types, intellectual disability, and psychiatric symptoms affecting mood and behavior. Few data regarding neuropsychological features have been described, and details on cognitive profiles are often missing due to the lack of standardized tests. Methods: We retrospectively reviewed the neuropsychological assessments of five subjects carrying heterozygous missense genetic variants in SLC6A1. We also collected data on epileptic features, EEGs, and brain MRIs. Additionally, we reviewed neuropsychological data from 204 previously reported patients with SLC6A1 pathogenic variants. Results: In our series, at the last evaluation (median 12.6 years), three patients had borderline intellectual functioning, one patient had mild cognitive impairment, and one patient presented with a moderate cognitive disability. Three out of five patients underwent at least two neuropsychological evaluations, which revealed a worsening of cognitive functions over time. We detected attention deficits in all patients. In addition, we observed anxiety, disruptive behavior disorder, emotional instability, and hetero aggressiveness. We also performed a literature review that highlighted that most of the patients with SLC6A1 pathogenic variants have mild-to-moderate intellectual disability and that one-third of cases have autistic traits. Discussion: Based on the literature review and the detailed description of our cases, we conclude that patients with SLC6A1-related epilepsy mostly present with mild-to-moderate intellectual disability, often associated with attention disorders. Such symptoms may worsen over time. Periodic standardized neuropsychological tests may be useful tools to follow development over time, and patient-specific rehabilitation programs could be tailored consistently.

Refining of the electroclinical phenotype in familial and sporadic cases of CSNK2B-related Neurodevelopmental Syndrome.

CSNK2B encodes a regulatory subunit of casein kinase II, which is highly expressed in the brain. Heterozygous pathogenic variants in CSNK2B are associated with Poirier-Bienvenu neurodevelopmental syndrome (POBINDS) (OMIM #618732), characterized by facial dysmorphisms, seizures, intellectual disability, and behavioral disturbances. We report ten new patients with CSNK2B-related Neurodevelopmental Syndrome associated with heterozygous variants of CSNK2B. In three patients, a pathogenic variant was inherited from an affected parent. We describe both molecular and clinical features, focusing on epileptic and neurodevelopmental phenotypes. The median age at follow-up was 8.5 years (range 21 months-42 years). All patients had epilepsy, with onset at a median age of 10.5 months range 6 days-10 years). Seizures were both focal and generalized and were resistant to anti-seizure medications in two out of ten patients. Six patients had mild to moderate cognitive delays, whereas four patients had no cognitive disability. Although all previously reported patients had a de novo CSNK2B pathogenic variant, here we report, for the first time, two familial cases of CSNK2B-related Neurodevelopmental Syndrome. We confirmed the highly variable expressivity of the disease among both interfamilial and intrafamilial cases. Furthermore, this study provides information about the long-term outcome in adult patients and underlines the importance of detailed family history collection before performing genetic testing in patients with epilepsy and neurodevelopmental disorders.

Language Delay in Patients with CLN2 Disease: Could It Support Earlier Diagnosis?

Neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis type 2 (CLN2 disease) is a rare pediatric disorder associated with rapid neurodegeneration, and premature death in adolescence. An effective enzyme replacement therapy (cerliponase alfa) has been approved that can reduce this predictable neurological decline. The nonspecific early symptoms of CLN2 disease frequently delay diagnosis and appropriate management. Seizures are generally recognized as the first presenting symptom of CLN2 disease, but emerging data show that language delay may precede this. An improved understanding of language deficits in the earliest stage of CLN2 disease may support the early identification of patients. In this article, CLN2 disease experts examine how language development is affected by CLN2 disease in their clinical practices. The authors' experiences highlighted the timings of first words and first use of sentences, and language stagnation as key features of language deficits in CLN2 disease, and how deficits in language may be an earlier sign of the disease than seizures. Potential challenges in identifying early language deficits include assessing patients with other complex needs, and recognizing that a child's language abilities are not within normal parameters given the variability of language development in young children. CLN2 disease should be considered in children presenting with language delay and/or seizures to facilitate earlier diagnosis and access to treatment that can significantly reduce morbidity.

Predictive Value of MRI in Hypoxic-Ischemic Encephalopathy Treated with Therapeutic Hypothermia.

BACKGROUND: Hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (HIE) is a severe pathology, and no unique predictive biomarker has been identified. Our aims are to identify associations of perinatal and outcome parameters with morphological anomalies and ADC values from MRI. The secondary aims are to define a predictive ADC threshold value and detect ADC value fluctuations between MRIs acquired within 7 days (MR0) and at 1 year (MR1) of birth in relation to perinatal and outcome parameters. METHODS: Fifty-one term children affected by moderate HIE treated with hypothermia and undergoing MRI0 and MRI1 were recruited. Brain MRIs were evaluated through the van Rooij score, while ADC maps were co-registered on a standardized cerebral surface, on which 29 ROIs were drawn. Statistical analysis was performed in Matlab, with the statistical significance value at 0.05. RESULTS: ADC0 < ADC1 in the left and right thalami, left and right frontal white matter, right visual cortex, and the left dentate nucleus of children showing abnormal perinatal and neurodevelopmental parameters. At ROC analysis, the best prognostic ADC cut-off value was 1.535 mm2/s × 10-6 (sensitivity 80%, specificity 86%) in the right frontal white matter. ADC1 > ADC0 in the right visual cortex and left dentate nucleus, positively correlated with multiple abnormal perinatal and neurodevelopmental parameters. The van Rooij score was significantly higher in children presenting with sleep disorders. CONCLUSIONS: ADC values could be used as prognostic biomarkers to predict children's neurodevelopmental outcomes. Further studies are needed to address these crucial topics and validate our results. Early and multidisciplinary perinatal evaluation and the subsequent re-assessment of children are pivotal to identify physical and neuropsychological disorders to guarantee early and tailored therapy.

Depressive Anxiety Symptoms in Hospitalized Children with Chronic Illness during the First Italian COVID-19 Lockdown.

COVID-19 is continuing to spread around the world, having a direct impact on people's daily lives and health. Although the knowledge of the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on mental health in the general population is now well established, there is less information on its effect on specific and vulnerable populations, such as children with chronic illness (CI). We conducted a multi-centered cross-sectional study among pediatric patients in six public children's hospitals in Italy during the first lockdown, with the aim of assessing the proportion of children with CI presenting anxiety and depressive symptoms, and the clinical and demographic characteristics affecting such symptomatology. We included children with at least one chronic condition, with no cognitive delay, aged between 11 and 18 years. Brief standardized questionnaires were administered during medical scheduled visits to screen anxiety and depressive symptoms. We found a very high proportion of children showing mild to severe depressive and anxiety symptomatology (approximately 68% and 63%, respectively). Our results highlight the need of ensuring tailored psychological interventions to protect children with CI from the effect of the pandemic (and related restrictive measures such as quarantine and social distancing), with the final aim of promoting mental health and psychological well-being in this vulnerable population.

Improving the Emotional Distress and the Experience of Hospitalization in Children and Adolescent Patients Through Animal Assisted Interventions: A Systematic Review.

Introduction: Animal Assisted Interventions (AAIs) are increasingly common in pediatric care settings as a means to promote the physical, mental, and emotional well-being of hospitalized children and adolescents. Objectives: The aim of this work was to review published studies implementing AAIs in hospital settings and to assess the effects of AAIs on the biobehavioral response to stress and pain, social behavior, quality of life and level of satisfaction with hospitalization in children and adolescents. Stress and burden, quality of life, mood and level of satisfaction with hospitalization in parents/caregivers as well as stress and burden, perception of the work environment and job satisfaction in hospital staff were also reviewed. Methods: All published studies reporting quantitative assessments were systematically searched using PubMed, Scopus, ProQuest and Web of Science databases in accordance with PRISMA guidelines. The aim was to identify studies examining the effects of AAIs on behavioral, psychological and physiological responses to stress in children and adolescents (0-18 years) formally admitted to a hospital for a stay, as well as in those undergoing a visit for treatments or medical examinations. Results: Of the 350 studies screened, 21 were eligible for inclusion. Most of them focused on stress, pain, and anxiety reduction in pediatric patients, and used both physiological parameters and behavioral and psychological observations/scales. All studies employed dogs. Results show the potential of AAIs to reduce anxiety and behavioral distress in pediatric patients while acting on physiological measures associated with arousal. Conclusion: Although further, more rigorous studies are still needed, the findings of this review may have implications for clinical practices suggesting appropriate planning of AAIs by pediatric healthcare professionals. Systematic Review Registration: [https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/display_record.php?RecordID=178993], identifier [CRD42020178993].

Hemispherotomy in Infants with Hemimegalencephaly: Long-Term Seizure and Developmental Outcome in Early Treated Patients.

Hemimegalencephaly (HME) is a rare brain congenital malformation, consisting in altered neuronal migration and proliferation within one hemisphere, which is responsible for early onset drug-resistant epilepsy. Hemispherotomy is an effective treatment option for patients with HME and drug-resistant epilepsy. Surgical outcome may be variable among different surgical series, and the long-term neuropsychological trajectory has been rarely defined using a standardized neurocognitive test. We report the epileptological and neuropsychological long-term outcomes of four consecutive HME patients, operated on before the age of three years. All patients were seizure-free and drug-free, and the minimum follow-up duration was of five years. Despite the excellent post-surgical seizure outcome, the long-term developmental outcome is quite variable between patients, ranging from mild to severe intellectual disabilities. Patients showed improvement mainly in communication skills, while visuo-perceptive and coordination abilities were more impaired. Epileptological outcome seems to be improved in early treated patients; however, neuropsychological outcome in HME patients may be highly variable despite early surgery.

Multicenter prospective longitudinal study in 34 patients with Dravet syndrome: Neuropsychological development in the first six years of life.

The objective of this study was to identify developmental trajectories of developmental/behavioral phenotypes and possibly their relationship to epilepsy and genotype by analyzing developmental and behavioral features collected prospectively and longitudinally in a cohort of patients with Dravet syndrome (DS). Thirty-four patients from seven Italian tertiary pediatric neurology centers were enrolled in the study. All patients were examined for the SCN1A gene mutation and prospectively assessed from the first years of life with repeated full clinical observations including neurological and developmental examinations. Subjects were found to follow three neurodevelopmental trajectories. In the first group (16 patients), an initial and usually mild decline was observed between the second and the third year of life, specifically concerning visuomotor abilities, later progressing towards global involvement of all abilities. The second group (12 patients) showed an earlier onset of global developmental impairment, progressing towards a generally worse outcome. The third group of only two patients ended up with a normal neurodevelopmental quotient, but with behavioral and linguistic problems. The remaining four patients were not classifiable due to a lack of critical assessments just before developmental decline. The neurodevelopmental trajectories described in this study suggest a differential contribution of neurobiological and genetic factors. The profile of the first group, which included the largest fraction of patients, suggests that in the initial phase of the disease, visuomotor defects might play a major role in determining developmental decline. Early diagnosis of milder cases with initial visuomotor impairment may therefore provide new tools for a more accurate habilitation strategy.

Pediatric status epilepticus: Identification of prognostic factors using the new ILAE classification after 5 years of follow-up.

OBJECTIVE: Status epilepticus (SE) is the most common neurologic emergency in childhood. This study aimed to report on a large cohort of pediatric patients with SE, applying the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE) Classification for SE to identify prognostic factors. METHODS: We included 173 children treated at "Bambino Gesù" Children's Hospital in Rome for SE exceeding 30 minutes (mean age 4.43 ± 4.93 years old, median 2.28, interquartile range [IQR] 0.41-7.32; follow-up for a mean of 4.9 ± 3.4 years, median 8.75, IQR 4,58-12.63). A multivariate model was constructed to predict neurocognitive outcome, recurrence of SE, development of epilepsy, and mortality. Adjusted odds ratios [ORs] were calculated with 95% confidence interval (OR, 95% CIs). RESULTS: We observed a different prevalence of etiologies for the different semiologies (P < .05) and for each age group (P < .05), overlapping only in part with the recent ILAE classification. After SE, patients showed 69.9% epilepsy (drug-resistant in half of them), 23.1% worsening of neurologic findings on examination, 28.9% cognitive deficit, and 28.3% recurrent SE. At multivariate analysis: superrefractory SE was correlated to an increased risk of developing cognitive (OR 6.00, 95% CI 2.09, 17.31) or neurologic sequelae (OR 4.9, 95% CI 1.75, 19.77). A similar finding was observed for patients with onset in the neonatal period for cognitive (OR 4.84, 95% CI 1.13, 17.3) and neurologic sequelae (OR 9.03, 95% CI 2.40, 34.04). Recurrence of SE was associated with unknown etiology (OR 6.15, 95% CI 1.43, 26.76), and myoclonic semiology (OR 6.1, 95% CI 1.23, 29.3). Patients with acute symptomatic etiology (OR 0.12, 95% CI 0.04, 0.40) had a lower risk for developing epilepsy. SIGNIFICANCE: Age at onset and duration of SE were critical independent variables associated with worse neurocognitive outcome. The risk of developing epilepsy was lower after acute symptomatic and febrile SE. Semiology and age at onset correlate with etiology of SE. For this reason, ILAE classification with respect to four axes seems an appropriate advancement.

Purified Cannabidiol for Treatment of Refractory Epilepsies in Pediatric Patients with Developmental and Epileptic Encephalopathy.

BACKGROUND: A pharmaceutical grade formulation of cannabidiol (CBD) has been approved for the treatment of Dravet syndrome and Lennox-Gastaut syndrome; however, this formulation is not yet available to patients outside the USA. In addition, CBD is thought to have broad anti-seizure properties that may be beneficial for other types of intractable epilepsy. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to evaluate the efficacy, safety and tolerability of artisanal medical CBD oil in patients with developmental and epileptic encephalopathy (DEE) at the tertiary epilepsy center of Bambino Gesù Children's Hospital in Rome, Italy. METHODS: This was a single-center, prospective, open-label study. Patients aged from 1 to 18 years with DEE and seizures refractory to appropriate antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) and other alternative treatments (i.e., vagal nerve stimulator and ketogenic diet) were included. Crystalline extract CBD powder (98-99% pure) in an oil artisanal formulation was added to the baseline AED regimen at a dosage of 2-5 mg/kg/day divided for twice-daily administration, then up-titrated until intolerance or a maximum dosage of 25 mg/kg/day was reached. Patients were treated for at least 6 months. Efficacy, safety and tolerability of CBD treatment were assessed through the evaluation of seizure frequency and reports of adverse effects. RESULTS: Twenty-nine patients were enrolled in this study (41.4% male). The mean duration of exposure to artisanal CBD was 11.2 months [range 6-25 months; standard deviation (SD) ± 4.4 months]. Mean age at study enrollment was 9.3 years (range 1.9-16.3 years; SD ± 4.7 years). Eleven out of 29 patients (37.9%) had a ≥ 50% improvement in seizure frequency; one patient became seizure free. None of the patients reported worsening seizure frequency; however, 18 patients (62.1%) experienced no beneficial effect regarding seizure frequency. Adverse effects were reported in seven patients (24.14%), most commonly somnolence, decreased appetite and diarrhea. Adverse events were mild and transient, and no dose modification of CBD or other AEDs was required. CONCLUSIONS: These data suggest that CBD may have beneficial effects in patients with DEE and an acceptable safety profile. Placebo-controlled randomized trials should be conducted to formally assess the safety and efficacy of CBD in patients with DEE.

Defining the electroclinical phenotype and outcome of PCDH19-related epilepsy: A multicenter study.

OBJECTIVE: PCDH19-related epilepsy is an epileptic syndrome with infantile onset, characterized by clustered and fever-induced seizures, often associated with intellectual disability (ID) and autistic features. The aim of this study was to analyze a large cohort of patients with PCDH19-related epilepsy and better define the epileptic phenotype, genotype-phenotype correlations, and related outcome-predicting factors. METHODS: We retrospectively collected genetic, clinical, and electroencephalogram (EEG) data of 61 patients with PCDH19-related epilepsy followed at 15 epilepsy centers. All consecutively performed EEGs were analyzed, totaling 551. We considered as outcome measures the development of ID, autistic spectrum disorder (ASD), and seizure persistence. The analyzed variables were the following: gender, age at onset, age at study, genetic variant, fever sensitivity, seizure type, cluster occurrence, status epilepticus, EEG abnormalities, and cognitive and behavioral disorders. Receiver operating characteristic curve analysis was performed to evaluate the age at which seizures might decrease in frequency. RESULTS: At last follow-up (median = 12 years, range = 1.9-42.1 years), 48 patients (78.7%) had annual seizures/clusters, 13 patients (21.3%) had monthly to weekly seizures, and 12 patients (19.7%) were seizure-free for ≥2 years. Receiver operating characteristic analysis showed a significant decrease of seizure frequency after the age of 10.5 years (sensitivity = 81.0%, specificity = 70.0%). Thirty-six patients (59.0%) had ID and behavioral disturbances. ASD was present in 31 patients. An earlier age at epilepsy onset emerged as the only predictive factor for ID (P = 0.047) and ASD (P = 0.014). Conversely, age at onset was not a predictive factor for seizure outcome (P = 0.124). SIGNIFICANCE: We found that earlier age at epilepsy onset is related to a significant risk for ID and ASD. Furthermore, long-term follow-up showed that after the age of 10 years, seizures decrease in frequency and cognitive and behavioral disturbances remain the primary clinical problems.

Symptoms of anxiety and depression and family's quality of life in children and adolescents with epilepsy.

INTRODUCTION: We studied children and adolescents with epilepsy (CAWE) and their families to evaluate symptoms of anxiety and depression, quality of life (QoL), and their correlations with epilepsy characteristics. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The study included 326 (52.5% females) 8 to 18years old CAWE. Anxiety and depression were assessed with the "Self-administered psychiatric scales for children and adolescents" (SAFA), and family's QoL with the parents' report "Impact of Epilepsy on QoL" (IEQoL). RESULTS: The CAWE exhibiting abnormal (T≥70) scores were 8.0% in the anxiety scale, 9.2% in the depression scale, and 4.6% in both scales. Social anxiety was the predominant anxiety symptom, while irritable mood and desperation were the most frequent symptoms of depression. Depressive symptoms were associated with parents' complaint of higher worries about the child's condition and future and lower well-being of the family. Severity and duration of the epilepsy and polypharmacy were independent from abnormal scores of anxiety and depression, but were associated with parents' worries about the child's condition and family's well-being. CONCLUSIONS: Anxiety and depression in CAWE are independent from the characteristics of the disease but are correlated to the lower well-being of the family. A search of these emotional problems is recommended for better care of the patients and their families.

PCDH19-related epilepsy and Dravet Syndrome: Face-off between two early-onset epilepsies with fever sensitivity.

Aim of this study is to compare PCDH19-related epilepsy and Dravet Syndrome (DS) in order to find out differences between these two infantile epilepsies with fever sensitivity. We retrospectively reviewed the medical records of 15 patients with PCDH19-related epilepsy and 19 with DS. Comparisons were performed with Fisher's exact test or Student's t-test. Females prevailed in PCDH19-related epilepsy. Epilepsy onset was earlier in DS (5.0+2.1 vs 11.2+7.0months; p<0.05). The second seizure/cluster occurred after a longer latency in PCDH19-related epilepsy rather than in DS (10.1±13.6 vs 2.2±2.1months; p<0.05). Seizures were mainly single and prolonged seizures in DS, and brief and clustered in PCDH19-related epilepsy. Myoclonic and clonic seizures have been found only in DS. Other types of seizures were found in both epilepsies with a prevalence of GTCS and atypical absences in DS, and focal motor and hypomotor seizures in PCDH19-related epilepsy. Seizures with affective symptoms have been confirmed to be typical of PCDH19-related epilepsy. Status Epilepticus equally occurred in both groups. Photosensitivity was detected only in DS. No differences were found about the presence of intellectual disabilities and behavioral disturbances. We were able to find out some distinctive features, which could address the diagnosis towards DS or PCDH19-related epilepsy, since first manifestation. These considerations suggest to definitively considering PCDH19 gene as cause of a proper epileptic phenotype.

Peri-ictal water drinking: a rare automatic behaviour in temporal lobe epilepsy.

Peri-ictal water drinking (PIWD) has been reported as the action of drinking during or within two minutes of an electroclinical seizure. It is considered a peri-ictal vegetative symptom, evident both during childhood and adulthood epilepsy. The aim of this paper was to describe the clinical and electroencephalographic features of two new adult subjects suffering from symptomatic temporal lobe epilepsy with episodes of PIWD recorded by VIDEO-EEG and to review literature data in order to better define this peculiar event during seizures, a rare and probably underestimated semiological sign. To date, 51 cases with focal epilepsy and seizures associated with PIWD have been reported. All patients presented with temporal lobe epilepsy. All cases but one had symptomatic epilepsy. Most of the patients had an involvement of the right hemisphere. Water drinking was reported as an ictal sign in the majority of patients, and less frequently was reported as postictal. We believe that PIWD might be considered a rare automatic behaviour, like other automatisms. Automatisms are more frequently described in patients with temporal lobe epilepsy. PIWD was reported also to have lateralizing significance in the non-dominant temporal lobe, however, because of its rarity, this finding remains unclear.

CHD2 mutations are a rare cause of generalized epilepsy with myoclonic-atonic seizures.

Chromodomain helicase DNA-binding protein 2 (CHD2) gene mutations have been reported in patients with myoclonic-atonic epilepsy (MAE), as well as in patients with Lennox-Gastaut, Dravet, and Jeavons syndromes and other epileptic encephalopathies featuring generalized epilepsy and intellectual disability. The aim of this study was to assess the impact of CHD2 mutations in a series of patients with MAE. Twenty patients affected by MAE were included in the study. We analyzed antecedents, age at onset, seizure semiology and frequency, EEG, treatment, and neuropsychological outcome. We sequenced the CHD2 gene with Sanger technology. We identified a CHD2 frameshift mutation in one patient (c.4256del19). He was a 17-year-old boy with no familial history for epilepsy and normal development before epilepsy onset. Epilepsy onset was at 3years and 5months: he presented with myoclonic-atonic seizures, head drops, myoclonic jerks, and absences. Interictal EEGs revealed slow background activity associated with generalized epileptiform abnormalities and photoparoxysmal response. His seizures were highly responsive to valproic acid, and an attempt to withdraw it led to seizure recurrence. Neuropsychological evaluation revealed moderate intellectual disability. Chromodomain-helicase-DNA-binding protein 2 is not the major gene associated with MAE. Conversely, CHD2 could be responsible for a proper phenotype characterized by infantile-onset generalized epilepsy, intellectual disability, and photosensitivity, which might overlap with MAE, Lennox-Gastaut, Dravet, and Jeavons syndromes.

Mutation of CHRNA2 in a family with benign familial infantile seizures: Potential role of nicotinic acetylcholine receptor in various phenotypes of epilepsy.

Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor genes are involved mainly in nocturnal frontal epilepsy. Despite extensive studies, to date, the α2 subunit did not show a strong association with this peculiar epileptic phenotype. We report CHRNA2 missense mutation in a family with benign familial infantile seizures (BFIS). TrueSeq Custom Amplicon (TSCA) sequencing approach was used to screen 10 ion channel genes in patients with idiopathic epilepsies. TSCA revealed a heterozygous single-nucleotide substitution in CHRNA2 gene (c.1126 C>T; p. Arg376Trp) that segregated in a family with BFIS; based on bio-informatics inspection, the change was predicted to be pathogenic. The investigated family includes parents and their three daughters. In affected individuals, seizures started between 6 and 24 months of age. Seizures were mainly in cluster and well-controlled. Outcome was good in all subjects. Even if nicotinic acetylcholine receptor genes are traditionally associated with autosomal dominant nocturnal frontal lobe epilepsy (ADNFLE), this single-family description can open new possibilities in the genetic diagnosis, molecular characterization, and management of CHRNA2-related epilepsy. The pathogenic conversion of arginine 376 to tryptophan alters all of these interactions in the cytoplasmic domain, never reported to be involved in epileptogenic mechanism. Further functional tests will be necessary to strongly relate CHRNA2 mutation with BFIS phenotype.