Germline bi-allelic SH2B3/LNK alteration predisposes to a neonatal juvenile myelomonocytic leukemia-like disorder.

Juvenile myelomonocytic leukemia (JMML) is a rare, generally aggressive myeloproliferative neoplasm affecting young children. It is characterized by granulomonocytic expansion, with monocytosis infiltrating peripheral tissues. JMML is initiated by mutations upregulating RAS signaling. Approximately 10% of cases remain without an identified driver event. Exome sequencing of 2 unrelated cases of familial JMML of unknown genetics and analysis of the French JMML cohort identified 11 patients with variants in SH2B3, encoding LNK, a negative regulator of the JAK-STAT pathway. All variants were absent from healthy population databases, and mutation spectrum was consistent with a loss of function of the LNK protein. A stoploss variant was shown to affect both protein synthesis and stability. The other variants were either truncating or missense, the latter affecting the SH2 domain that interacts with activated JAK. Of the 11 patients, 8 from 5 families inherited pathogenic bi-allelic SH2B3 germline variants from their unaffected heterozygous parents. These children represent half of the cases with no identified causal mutation in the French cohort. They displayed typical clinical and hematological JMML features with neonatal onset and marked thrombocytopenia. They were characterized by absence of additional genetic alterations and a hypomethylated DNA profile with fetal characteristics. All patients showed partial or complete spontaneous clinical resolution. However, progression to thrombocythemia and immunity-related pathologies may be of concern later in life. Bi-allelic SH2B3 germline mutations thus define a new condition predisposing to a JMML-like disorder, suggesting that the JAK pathway deregulation is capable of initiating JMML, and opening new therapeutic options.

Hypoglycemia post bariatric surgery: drugs with different mechanisms of action to treat a unique disorder

ABSTRACT Postprandial hypoglycemia (PPH) is a complex and multifactorial complication of bariatric surgery (BS). PPH may cause severe symptoms or be asymptomatic. The treatment of this condition requires dietary changes, but severe cases require drug therapy. The number of therapeutic options is limited and are often associated with adverse side effects. Different classes of drugs have been used and tested, but the resolution of PPH remains a challenge for physicians and patients. In this review, we gathered articles on PPH after BS from PubMed searches (2001 to 2022) and focused on the main drugs tested for the treatment of this condition, such as acarbose, somatostatin analogues, type 2 sodium-glucose cotransporter inhibitors, calcium channel blockers, and liraglutide. Avexitide and glucagon pump are two new therapeutic options that have been recently tested. For the search, the terms "postbariatric hypoglycemia," "bariatric surgery," and "late dumping syndrome" were used. PPH after BS is a frequent condition that should always be evaluated after BS. Treatment should be individualized and the available therapeutic options may be useful based on the condition's pathophysiology.

Enhancer hijacking at the ARHGAP36 locus is associated with connective tissue to bone transformation.

Heterotopic ossification is a disorder caused by abnormal mineralization of soft tissues in which signaling pathways such as BMP, TGFß and WNT are known key players in driving ectopic bone formation. Identifying novel genes and pathways related to the mineralization process are important steps for future gene therapy in bone disorders. In this study, we detect an inter-chromosomal insertional duplication in a female proband disrupting a topologically associating domain and causing an ultra-rare progressive form of heterotopic ossification. This structural variant lead to enhancer hijacking and misexpression of ARHGAP36 in fibroblasts, validated here by orthogonal in vitro studies. In addition, ARHGAP36 overexpression inhibits TGFß, and activates hedgehog signaling and genes/proteins related to extracellular matrix production. Our work on the genetic cause of this heterotopic ossification case has revealed that ARHGAP36 plays a role in bone formation and metabolism, outlining first details of this gene contributing to bone-formation and -disease.

Hypoglycemia post bariatric surgery: drugs with different mechanisms of action to treat a unique disorder.

Postprandial hypoglycemia (PPH) is a complex and multifactorial complication of bariatric surgery (BS). PPH may cause severe symptoms or be asymptomatic. The treatment of this condition requires dietary changes, but severe cases require drug therapy. The number of therapeutic options is limited and are often associated with adverse side effects. Different classes of drugs have been used and tested, but the resolution of PPH remains a challenge for physicians and patients. In this review, we gathered articles on PPH after BS from PubMed searches (2001 to 2022) and focused on the main drugs tested for the treatment of this condition, such as acarbose, somatostatin analogues, type 2 sodium-glucose cotransporter inhibitors, calcium channel blockers, and liraglutide. Avexitide and glucagon pump are two new therapeutic options that have been recently tested. For the search, the terms "postbariatric hypoglycemia," "bariatric surgery," and "late dumping syndrome" were used. PPH after BS is a frequent condition that should always be evaluated after BS. Treatment should be individualized and the available therapeutic options may be useful based on the condition's pathophysiology.

Dominantly acting KIF5B variants with pleiotropic cellular consequences cause variable clinical phenotypes.

Kinesins are motor proteins involved in microtubule (MT)-mediated intracellular transport. They contribute to key cellular processes, including intracellular trafficking, organelle dynamics and cell division. Pathogenic variants in kinesin-encoding genes underlie several human diseases characterized by an extremely variable clinical phenotype, ranging from isolated neurodevelopmental/neurodegenerative disorders to syndromic phenotypes belonging to a family of conditions collectively termed as 'ciliopathies.' Among kinesins, kinesin-1 is the most abundant MT motor for transport of cargoes towards the plus end of MTs. Three kinesin-1 heavy chain isoforms exist in mammals. Different from KIF5A and KIF5C, which are specifically expressed in neurons and established to cause neurological diseases when mutated, KIF5B is an ubiquitous protein. Three de novo missense KIF5B variants were recently described in four subjects with a syndromic skeletal disorder characterized by kyphomelic dysplasia, hypotonia and DD/ID. Here, we report three dominantly acting KIF5B variants (p.Asn255del, p.Leu498Pro and p.Leu537Pro) resulting in a clinically wide phenotypic spectrum, ranging from dilated cardiomyopathy with adult-onset ophthalmoplegia and progressive skeletal myopathy to a neurodevelopmental condition characterized by severe hypotonia with or without seizures. In vitro and in vivo analyses provide evidence that the identified disease-associated KIF5B variants disrupt lysosomal, autophagosome and mitochondrial organization, and impact cilium biogenesis. All variants, and one of the previously reported missense changes, were shown to affect multiple developmental processes in zebrafish. These findings document pleiotropic consequences of aberrant KIF5B function on development and cell homeostasis, and expand the phenotypic spectrum resulting from altered kinesin-mediated processes.

3'UTR Deletion of NONO Leads to Corpus Callosum Anomaly, Left Ventricular Non-Compaction and Ebstein's Anomaly in a Male Fetus.

NONO (Non-Pou Domain-Containing Octamer-Binding Protein) gene maps on chromosome Xq13.1 and hemizygous loss-of-function nucleotide variants are associated with an emerging syndromic form of intellectual developmental disorder (MRXS34; MIM #300967), characterized by developmental delay, intellectual disability, poor language, dysmorphic facial features, and microcephaly. Structural brain malformation, such as corpus callosum and cerebellar abnormalities, and heart defects, in particular left ventricular non-compaction (LVNC), represent the most recurrent congenital malformations, recorded both in about 80% of patients, and can be considered the distinctive imaging findings of this disorder. We present on a further case of NONO-related disease; prenatally diagnosed in a fetus with complete corpus callosum agenesis; absence of septum pellucidum; pericallosal artery; LVNC and Ebstein's anomaly. A high-resolution microarray analysis demonstrated the presence of a deletion affecting the NONO 3'UTR; leading to a marked hypoexpression of the gene and the complete absence of the protein in cultured amniocytes. This case expands the mutational spectrum of MRXS34, advises to evaluate NONO variants in pre- and postnatal diagnosis of subjects affected by LVNC and other heart defects, especially if associated with corpus callosum anomalies and confirm that CNVs (Copy Number Variants) represent a non-negligible cause of Mendelian disorders.

SGLT2 Inhibition with Empagliflozin as a Possible Therapeutic Option for Postprandial Hypoglycemia After Bariatric Surgery.

PURPOSE: Since SGLT2 inhibitors may reduce postprandial hyperglycemia, this study aimed to evaluated whether empagliflozin might be useful in the treatment of postprandial hypoglycemia (PPH) postbariatric surgery (BS). PATIENTS AND METHODS: Fourteen patients who underwent BS, nine without type 2 diabetes and five with diabetes before surgery and in remission after surgery, were included. Seven of them presented symptoms of PPH (hypoglycemic group; HG) and seven were asymptomatic (nonhypoglycemic group (NHG)). A meal tolerance test was performed before and after administration of a daily dose of empagliflozin (EMPA) 25 mg for 3 days. Plasma glucose and serum insulin levels were measured. RESULTS: In HG, compared with NHG, in the basal test, the area under the curve (AUC) of plasma glucose levels (AUCgly) was smaller (158.3 ± 25.3 vs 276.6 ± 79.2 mg h dL-1; p = 0.001) while the AUC of insulin levels (AUCins) did not differ, leading to a higher AUCins/AUCgly ratio (0.79 ± 0.46 vs 0.38 ± 0.20; p = 0.055) and a lower HOMA-IR (0.92 ± 0.22 vs 1.75 ± 0.77; p = 0.030). The HG after EMPA, but not the NHG, showed significant increases in glycemia leading to greater AUCgly (158.0 ± 25.3 to 197.2 ± 51.6 mg h dL-1; p = 0.043) without significant changes in AUCins. HOMA-IR increased only in the HG (0.92 ± 0.20 vs 1.61 ± 0.30; p = 0.025) and, when both groups were analyzed together, both before and post EMPA, a significant correlation was found between HOMA-IR and AUCgly values (r = 0.594; p = 0.002). CONCLUSION: Our results suggest that empagliflozin increased glycemic levels in patients with PPH possibly through increases in hepatic glucose production.

Metabolic profiling of Costello syndrome: Insights from a single-center cohort.

Costello syndrome (CS) is a rare disorder caused by activating dominantly acting germline variants in the HRAS gene. CS is defined by a clinical phenotype characterized by a distinctive gestalt, multiple congenital anomalies, and increased risk to develop tumors. Hypoglycemia and hypercholesterolemia have been reported to occur in affected individuals, but the underlying molecular events remain to be characterized. Here, we provided data on glucose/lipid metabolism and amino acid profile of a large single-center cohort of individuals affected by CS to systematically assess the extent of metabolic dysregulation characterizing this disorder and optimize patient management.

Hyperactive HRAS dysregulates energetic metabolism in fibroblasts from patients with Costello syndrome via enhanced production of reactive oxidizing species.

Germline-activating mutations in HRAS cause Costello syndrome (CS), a cancer prone multisystem disorder characterized by reduced postnatal growth. In CS, poor weight gain and growth are not caused by low caloric intake. Here, we show that constitutive plasma membrane translocation and activation of the GLUT4 glucose transporter, via reactive oxygen species-dependent AMP-activated protein kinase α and p38 hyperactivation, occurs in primary fibroblasts of CS patients, resulting in accelerated glycolysis and increased fatty acid synthesis and storage as lipid droplets. An accelerated autophagic flux was also identified as contributing to the increased energetic expenditure in CS. Concomitant inhibition of p38 and PI3K signaling by wortmannin was able to rescue both the dysregulated glucose intake and accelerated autophagic flux. Our findings provide a mechanistic link between upregulated HRAS function, defective growth and increased resting energetic expenditure in CS, and document that targeting p38 and PI3K signaling is able to revert this metabolic dysfunction.

Targeting Oncogenic Src Homology 2 Domain-Containing Phosphatase 2 (SHP2) by Inhibiting Its Protein-Protein Interactions.

We developed a new class of inhibitors of protein-protein interactions of the SHP2 phosphatase, which is pivotal in cell signaling and represents a central target in the therapy of cancer and rare diseases. Currently available SHP2 inhibitors target the catalytic site or an allosteric pocket but lack specificity or are ineffective for disease-associated SHP2 mutants. Considering that pathogenic lesions cause signaling hyperactivation due to increased levels of SHP2 association with cognate proteins, we developed peptide-based molecules with nanomolar affinity for the N-terminal Src homology domain of SHP2, good selectivity, stability to degradation, and an affinity for pathogenic variants of SHP2 that is 2-20 times higher than for the wild-type protein. The best peptide reverted the effects of a pathogenic variant (D61G) in zebrafish embryos. Our results provide a novel route for SHP2-targeted therapies and a tool for investigating the role of protein-protein interactions in the function of SHP2.

A Rare Case of Brachyolmia with Amelogenesis Imperfecta Caused by a New Pathogenic Splicing Variant in LTBP3.

In recent years, a rare form of autosomal recessive brachyolmia associated with amelogenesis imperfecta (AI) has been described as a novel nosologic entity. This disorder is characterized by skeletal dysplasia (e.g., platyspondyly, short trunk, scoliosis, broad ilia, elongated femoral necks with coxa valga) and severe enamel and dental anomalies. Pathogenic variants in the latent transforming growth factor-ß binding protein 3 (LTBP3) gene have been found implicated in the pathogenesis of this disorder. So far, biallelic pathogenic LTBP3 variants have been identified in less than 10 families. We here report a young boy born from consanguineous parents with a complex phenotype including skeletal dysplasia associated with aortic stenosis, hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, hypodontia and amelogenesis imperfecta caused by a previously unreported homozygous LTBP3 splice site variant. We also compare the genotypes and phenotypes of patients reported to date. This work provides further evidence that brachyolmia with amelogenesis imperfecta is a distinct nosologic entity and that variations in LTBP3 are involved in its pathogenesis.

Compound heterozygosity for PTPN11 variants in a subject with Noonan syndrome provides insights into the mechanism of SHP2-related disorders.

The RASopathies are a family of clinically related disorders caused by mutations affecting genes participating in the RAS-MAPK signaling cascade. Among them, Noonan syndrome (NS) and Noonan syndrome with multiple lentigines (NSML) are allelic conditions principally associated with dominant mutations in PTPN11, which encodes the nonreceptor SH2 domain-containing protein tyrosine phosphatase SHP2. Individual PTPN11 mutations are specific to each syndrome and have opposite consequences on catalysis, but all favor SHP2's interaction with signaling partners. Here, we report on a subject with NS harboring biallelic variants in PTPN11. While the former (p.Leu261Phe) had previously been reported in NS, the latter (p.Thr357Met) is a novel change impairing catalysis. Members of the family carrying p.Thr357Met, however, did not show any obvious feature fitting NSML or within the RASopathy phenotypic spectrum. A major impact of this change on transcript processing and protein stability was excluded. These findings further support the view that NSML cannot be ascribed merely to impaired SHP2's catalytic activity and suggest that PTPN11 mutations causing this condition act through an alternative dominant mechanism.

De Novo VPS4A Mutations Cause Multisystem Disease with Abnormal Neurodevelopment.

The endosomal sorting complexes required for transport (ESCRTs) are essential for multiple membrane modeling and membrane-independent cellular processes. Here we describe six unrelated individuals with de novo missense variants affecting the ATPase domain of VPS4A, a critical enzyme regulating ESCRT function. Probands had structural brain abnormalities, severe neurodevelopmental delay, cataracts, growth impairment, and anemia. In cultured cells, overexpression of VPS4A mutants caused enlarged endosomal vacuoles resembling those induced by expression of known dominant-negative ATPase-defective forms of VPS4A. Proband-derived fibroblasts had enlarged endosomal structures with abnormal accumulation of the ESCRT protein IST1 on the limiting membrane. VPS4A function was also required for normal endosomal morphology and IST1 localization in iPSC-derived human neurons. Mutations affected other ESCRT-dependent cellular processes, including regulation of centrosome number, primary cilium morphology, nuclear membrane morphology, chromosome segregation, mitotic spindle formation, and cell cycle progression. We thus characterize a distinct multisystem disorder caused by mutations affecting VPS4A and demonstrate that its normal function is required for multiple human developmental and cellular processes.

Enhanced MAPK1 Function Causes a Neurodevelopmental Disorder within the RASopathy Clinical Spectrum.

Signal transduction through the RAF-MEK-ERK pathway, the first described mitogen-associated protein kinase (MAPK) cascade, mediates multiple cellular processes and participates in early and late developmental programs. Aberrant signaling through this cascade contributes to oncogenesis and underlies the RASopathies, a family of cancer-prone disorders. Here, we report that de novo missense variants in MAPK1, encoding the mitogen-activated protein kinase 1 (i.e., extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase 2, ERK2), cause a neurodevelopmental disease within the RASopathy phenotypic spectrum, reminiscent of Noonan syndrome in some subjects. Pathogenic variants promote increased phosphorylation of the kinase, which enhances translocation to the nucleus and boosts MAPK signaling in vitro and in vivo. Two variant classes are identified, one of which directly disrupts binding to MKP3, a dual-specificity protein phosphatase negatively regulating ERK function. Importantly, signal dysregulation driven by pathogenic MAPK1 variants is stimulus reliant and retains dependence on MEK activity. Our data support a model in which the identified pathogenic variants operate with counteracting effects on MAPK1 function by differentially impacting the ability of the kinase to interact with regulators and substrates, which likely explains the minor role of these variants as driver events contributing to oncogenesis. After nearly 20 years from the discovery of the first gene implicated in Noonan syndrome, PTPN11, the last tier of the MAPK cascade joins the group of genes mutated in RASopathies.

Aberrant Function of the C-Terminal Tail of HIST1H1E Accelerates Cellular Senescence and Causes Premature Aging.

Histones mediate dynamic packaging of nuclear DNA in chromatin, a process that is precisely controlled to guarantee efficient compaction of the genome and proper chromosomal segregation during cell division and to accomplish DNA replication, transcription, and repair. Due to the important structural and regulatory roles played by histones, it is not surprising that histone functional dysregulation or aberrant levels of histones can have severe consequences for multiple cellular processes and ultimately might affect development or contribute to cell transformation. Recently, germline frameshift mutations involving the C-terminal tail of HIST1H1E, which is a widely expressed member of the linker histone family and facilitates higher-order chromatin folding, have been causally linked to an as-yet poorly defined syndrome that includes intellectual disability. We report that these mutations result in stable proteins that reside in the nucleus, bind to chromatin, disrupt proper compaction of DNA, and are associated with a specific methylation pattern. Cells expressing these mutant proteins have a dramatically reduced proliferation rate and competence, hardly enter into the S phase, and undergo accelerated senescence. Remarkably, clinical assessment of a relatively large cohort of subjects sharing these mutations revealed a premature aging phenotype as a previously unrecognized feature of the disorder. Our findings identify a direct link between aberrant chromatin remodeling, cellular senescence, and accelerated aging.

Activating Mutations of RRAS2 Are a Rare Cause of Noonan Syndrome.

Aberrant signaling through pathways controlling cell response to extracellular stimuli constitutes a central theme in disorders affecting development. Signaling through RAS and the MAPK cascade controls a variety of cell decisions in response to cytokines, hormones, and growth factors, and its upregulation causes Noonan syndrome (NS), a developmental disorder whose major features include a distinctive facies, a wide spectrum of cardiac defects, short stature, variable cognitive impairment, and predisposition to malignancies. NS is genetically heterogeneous, and mutations in more than ten genes have been reported to underlie this disorder. Despite the large number of genes implicated, about 10%-20% of affected individuals with a clinical diagnosis of NS do not have mutations in known RASopathy-associated genes, indicating that additional unidentified genes contribute to the disease, when mutated. By using a mixed strategy of functional candidacy and exome sequencing, we identify RRAS2 as a gene implicated in NS in six unrelated subjects/families. We show that the NS-causing RRAS2 variants affect highly conserved residues localized around the nucleotide binding pocket of the GTPase and are predicted to variably affect diverse aspects of RRAS2 biochemical behavior, including nucleotide binding, GTP hydrolysis, and interaction with effectors. Additionally, all pathogenic variants increase activation of the MAPK cascade and variably impact cell morphology and cytoskeletal rearrangement. Finally, we provide a characterization of the clinical phenotype associated with RRAS2 mutations.

The 4Ds of ectopic ACTH syndrome: diagnostic dilemmas of a difficult disease.

Cushing's syndrome (CS) is an uncommon condition that leads to high morbidity and mortality. The majority of endogenous CS is caused by excessive ACTH secretion, mainly due to a pituitary tumor - the so-called Cushing's disease (CD) - followed by ectopic ACTH syndrome (EAS), an extra-pituitary tumor that produces ACTH; adrenal causes of CS are even rarer. Several methods are used to differentiate the two main etiologies: specific laboratory tests and imaging procedures, and bilateral inferior petrosal sinus sampling (BIPSS) for ACTH determination; however, identification of the source of ACTH overproduction is often a challenge. We report the case of a 28-year-old woman with clinical and laboratory findings consistent with ACTH-dependent CS. All tests were mostly definite, but several confounding factors provoked an extended delay in identifying the origin of ACTH secretion, prompting a worsening of her clinical condition, with difficulty controlling hyperglycemia, hypokalemia, and hypertension. During this period, clinical treatment was decisive, and measurement of morning salivary cortisol was a differential for monitoring cortisol levels. This report shows that clinical reasoning, experience and use of recent methods of nuclear medicine were decisive for the elucidation of the case.

The 4Ds of ectopic ACTH syndrome: diagnostic dilemmas of a difficult disease

SUMMARY Cushing's syndrome (CS) is an uncommon condition that leads to high morbidity and mortality. The majority of endogenous CS is caused by excessive ACTH secretion, mainly due to a pituitary tumor - the so-called Cushing's disease (CD) - followed by ectopic ACTH syndrome (EAS), an extra-pituitary tumor that produces ACTH; adrenal causes of CS are even rarer. Several methods are used to differentiate the two main etiologies: specific laboratory tests and imaging procedures, and bilateral inferior petrosal sinus sampling (BIPSS) for ACTH determination; however, identification of the source of ACTH overproduction is often a challenge. We report the case of a 28-year-old woman with clinical and laboratory findings consistent with ACTH-dependent CS. All tests were mostly definite, but several confounding factors provoked an extended delay in identifying the origin of ACTH secretion, prompting a worsening of her clinical condition, with difficulty controlling hyperglycemia, hypokalemia, and hypertension. During this period, clinical treatment was decisive, and measurement of morning salivary cortisol was a differential for monitoring cortisol levels. This report shows that clinical reasoning, experience and use of recent methods of nuclear medicine were decisive for the elucidation of the case.

Biallelic SQSTM1 mutations in early-onset, variably progressive neurodegeneration.

OBJECTIVE: To characterize clinically and molecularly an early-onset, variably progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by a cerebellar syndrome with severe ataxia, gaze palsy, dyskinesia, dystonia, and cognitive decline affecting 11 individuals from 3 consanguineous families. METHODS: We used whole-exome sequencing (WES) (families 1 and 2) and a combined approach based on homozygosity mapping and WES (family 3). We performed in vitro studies to explore the effect of the nontruncating SQSTM1 mutation on protein function and the effect of impaired SQSTM1 function on autophagy. We analyzed the consequences of sqstm1 down-modulation on the structural integrity of the cerebellum in vivo using zebrafish as a model. RESULTS: We identified 3 homozygous inactivating variants, including a splice site substitution (c.301+2T>A) causing aberrant transcript processing and accelerated degradation of a resulting protein lacking exon 2, as well as 2 truncating changes (c.875_876insT and c.934_936delinsTGA). We show that loss of SQSTM1 causes impaired production of ubiquitin-positive protein aggregates in response to misfolded protein stress and decelerated autophagic flux. The consequences of sqstm1 down-modulation on the structural integrity of the cerebellum in zebrafish documented a variable but reproducible phenotype characterized by cerebellum anomalies ranging from depletion of axonal connections to complete atrophy. We provide a detailed clinical characterization of the disorder; the natural history is reported for 2 siblings who have been followed up for >20 years. CONCLUSIONS: This study offers an accurate clinical characterization of this recently recognized neurodegenerative disorder caused by biallelic inactivating mutations in SQSTM1 and links this phenotype to defective selective autophagy.