Global distribution of Leptospira serovar isolations and detections from animal host species: A systematic review and online database.

OBJECTIVES: Leptospira, the spirochaete causing leptospirosis, can be classified into >250 antigenically distinct serovars. Although knowledge of the animal host species and geographic distribution of Leptospira serovars is critical to understand the human and animal epidemiology of leptospirosis, current data are fragmented. We aimed to systematically review, the literature on animal host species and geographic distribution of Leptospira serovars to examine associations between serovars with animal host species and regions and to identify geographic regions in need of study. METHODS: Nine library databases were searched from inception through 9 March 2023 using keywords including Leptospira, animal, and a list of serovars. We sought reports of detection of Leptospira, from any animal, characterised by cross agglutinin absorption test, monoclonal antibody typing, serum factor analysis, or pulsed-field gel electrophoresis to identify the serovar. RESULTS: We included 409 reports, published from 1927 through 2022, yielding data on 154 Leptospira serovars. The reports included data from 66 (26.5%) of 249 countries. Detections were from 144 animal host species including 135 (93.8%) from the class Mammalia, 5 (3.5%) from Amphibia, 3 (2.1%) from Reptilia, and 1 (0.7%) from Arachnida. Across the animal host species, Leptospira serovars that were detected in the largest number of animal species included Grippotyphosa (n = 39), Icterohaemorrhagiae (n = 29), Pomona (n = 28), Australis (n = 25), and Ballum (n = 25). Of serovars, 76 were detected in a single animal host species. We created an online database to identify animal host species for each serovar by country. CONCLUSIONS: We found that many countries have few or no Leptospira serovars detected from animal host species and that many serovars were detected from a single animal species. Our study highlights the importance of efforts to identify animal host species of leptospirosis, especially in places with a high incidence of human leptospirosis. We provide an updated resource for leptospirosis researchers.

Prevalence and risk factors for human leptospirosis at a hospital serving a pastoralist community, Endulen, Tanzania.

BACKGROUND: Leptospirosis is suspected to be a major cause of illness in rural Tanzania associated with close contact with livestock. We sought to determine leptospirosis prevalence, identify infecting Leptospira serogroups, and investigate risk factors for leptospirosis in a rural area of Tanzania where pastoralist animal husbandry practices and sustained livestock contact are common. METHODS: We enrolled participants at Endulen Hospital, Tanzania. Patients with a history of fever within 72 hours, or a tympanic temperature of ≥38.0°C were eligible. Serum samples were collected at presentation and 4-6 weeks later. Sera were tested using microscopic agglutination testing with 20 Leptospira serovars from 17 serogroups. Acute leptospirosis cases were defined by a ≥four-fold rise in antibody titre between acute and convalescent serum samples or a reciprocal titre ≥400 in either sample. Leptospira seropositivity was defined by a single reciprocal antibody titre ≥100 in either sample. We defined the predominant reactive serogroup as that with the highest titre. We explored risk factors for acute leptospirosis and Leptospira seropositivity using logistic regression modelling. RESULTS: Of 229 participants, 99 (43.2%) were male and the median (range) age was 27 (0, 78) years. Participation in at least one animal husbandry practice was reported by 160 (69.9%). We identified 18 (7.9%) cases of acute leptospirosis, with Djasiman 8 (44.4%) and Australis 7 (38.9%) the most common predominant reactive serogroups. Overall, 69 (30.1%) participants were Leptospira seropositive and the most common predominant reactive serogroups were Icterohaemorrhagiae (n = 20, 29.0%), Djasiman (n = 19, 27.5%), and Australis (n = 17, 24.6%). Milking cattle (OR 6.27, 95% CI 2.24-7.52) was a risk factor for acute leptospirosis, and milking goats (OR 2.35, 95% CI 1.07-5.16) was a risk factor for Leptospira seropositivity. CONCLUSIONS: We identified leptospirosis in approximately one in twelve patients attending hospital with fever from this rural community. Interventions that reduce risks associated with milking livestock may reduce human infections.

Global distribution of Leptospira serovar isolations and detections from animal host species: a systematic review and online database.

Objectives: Leptospira, the spirochaete causing leptospirosis, can be classified into >250 antigenically distinct serovars. Although knowledge of the animal host species and geographic distribution of Leptospira serovars is critical to understand the human and animal epidemiology of leptospirosis, currently data are fragmented. We aimed to systematically review the literature on animal host species and geographic distribution of Leptospira serovars to examine associations between serovars with animal host species and regions, and to identify geographic regions in need of study. Methods: Nine library databases were searched from inception through 9 March 2023 using keywords including Leptospira, animal, and a list of serovars. We sought reports of detection of Leptospira, from any animal, characterized by cross agglutinin absorption test, monoclonal antibody typing, serum factor analysis, or pulsed-field gel electrophoresis to identify the serovar. Results: We included 409 reports, published from 1927 through 2022, yielding data on 154 Leptospira serovars. The reports included data from 66 (26.5%) of 249 countries. Detections were from 144 animal host species including 135 (93.8%) from the class Mammalia, 5 (3.5%) from Amphibia, 3 (2.1%) from Reptilia, and 1 (0.7%) from Arachnida. Across the animal host species, Leptospira serovars that were detected in the largest number of animal species included Grippotyphosa (n=39), Icterohaemorrhagiae (n=29), Pomona (n=28), Australis (n=25), and Ballum (n=25). Of serovars, 76 were detected in a single animal host species. We created an online database to identify animal host species for each serovar by country. Conclusions: We found that many countries have few or no Leptospira serovars detected from animal host species and that many serovars were detected from a single animal species. Our study highlights the importance of efforts to identify animal host species of leptospirosis, especially in places with a high incidence of human leptospirosis. We provide an updated resource for leptospirosis researchers.

Antibacterial Utilization for Febrile Illnesses and Laboratory-Confirmed Bloodstream Infections in Northern Tanzania.

Background: We describe antibacterial use in light of microbiology data and treatment guidelines for common febrile syndromes in Moshi, Tanzania. Methods: We compared data from 2 hospital-based prospective cohort studies, cohort 1 (2011-2014) and cohort 2 (2016-2019), that enrolled febrile children and adults. A study team member administered a standardized questionnaire, performed a physical examination, and collected blood cultures. Participants with bloodstream infection (BSI) were categorized as receiving effective or ineffective therapy based upon antimicrobial susceptibility interpretations. Antibacterials prescribed for treatment of pneumonia, urinary tract infection (UTI), or presumed sepsis were compared with World Health Organization and Tanzania Standard Treatment Guidelines. We used descriptive statistics and logistic regression to describe antibacterial use. Results: Among participants, 430 of 1043 (41.2%) and 501 of 1132 (44.3%) reported antibacterial use prior to admission in cohorts 1 and 2, respectively. During admission, 930 of 1043 (89.2%) received antibacterials in cohort 1 and 1060 of 1132 (93.6%) in cohort 2. Inpatient use of ceftriaxone, metronidazole, and ampicillin increased between cohorts (P ≤ .002 for each). BSI was detected in 38 (3.6%) participants in cohort 1 and 47 (4.2%) in cohort 2. Of 85 participants with BSI, 81 (95.3%) had complete data and 52 (64.2%) were prescribed effective antibacterials. Guideline-consistent therapy in cohort 1 and cohort 2 was as follows: pneumonia, 87.4% and 56.8%; UTI, 87.6% and 69.0%; sepsis, 84.4% and 61.2% (P ≤ .001 for each). Conclusions: Receipt of antibacterials for febrile illness was common. While guideline-consistent prescribing increased over time, more than one-third of participants with BSI received ineffective antibacterials.

Epidemiology of surgical site infections after solid organ transplants in the period 2015-2019: A single-center retrospective cohort study.

Surgical site infections (SSI) are severe complications of solid organ transplant (SOT). This retrospective study assessed the epidemiology of and outcomes associated with invasive primary SSI (IP-SSI) occurring within 3 months of transplantation in adult SOT recipients at Duke University over a 5-year period (2015-2019). Among 2073 consecutive SOT recipients, 198 IP-SSI were identified. The IP-SSI rate declined over the period (14.4% in 2015 vs. 8.3% in 2019) and was higher among multi-organ compared with single-organ transplants (33.9% vs. 8.1%, p < .01). SOT recipients with IP-SSI had longer hospital stays than patients without SSI (30.0 vs. 17.0 days, p < .01). Transplant hospitalization (9.6% vs. 2.2%, p < .01), 6-month (11.6% vs. 3.3%, p < .01), and 1-year mortality (15.7% vs. 5.8%, p < .01) were higher in SOT recipients with IP-SSI than in those without. While Gram-positive bacteria were the most common pathogens, urogenital Mollicute and atypical Mycobacteria were identified as an unexpected cause of IP-SSI, particularly among lung transplant recipients. The median time to IP-SSI was 24.0 (IQR 13.8-48.3) days, although the time to IP-SSI varied based on organ transplanted and the causative pathogen. IP-SSI is an important and potentially modifiable complication of SOT, associated with prolonged hospitalizations and reduced survival, particularly in the lung transplant population.

Facility-based disease surveillance and Bayesian hierarchical modeling to estimate endemic typhoid fever incidence, Kilimanjaro Region, Tanzania, 2007-2018.

Growing evidence suggests considerable variation in endemic typhoid fever incidence at some locations over time, yet few settings have multi-year incidence estimates to inform typhoid control measures. We sought to describe a decade of typhoid fever incidence in the Kilimanjaro Region of Tanzania. Cases of blood culture confirmed typhoid were identified among febrile patients at two sentinel hospitals during three study periods: 2007-08, 2011-14, and 2016-18. To account for under-ascertainment at sentinel facilities, we derived adjustment multipliers from healthcare utilization surveys done in the hospital catchment area. Incidence estimates and credible intervals (CrI) were derived using a Bayesian hierarchical incidence model that incorporated uncertainty of our observed typhoid fever prevalence, of healthcare seeking adjustment multipliers, and of blood culture diagnostic sensitivity. Among 3,556 total participants, 50 typhoid fever cases were identified. Of typhoid cases, 26 (52%) were male and the median (range) age was 22 (<1-60) years; 4 (8%) were aged <5 years and 10 (20%) were aged 5 to 14 years. Annual typhoid fever incidence was estimated as 61.5 (95% CrI 14.9-181.9), 6.5 (95% CrI 1.4-20.4), and 4.0 (95% CrI 0.6-13.9) per 100,000 persons in 2007-08, 2011-14, and 2016-18, respectively. There were no deaths among typhoid cases. We estimated moderate typhoid incidence (≥10 per 100 000) in 2007-08 and low (<10 per 100 000) incidence during later surveillance periods, but with overlapping credible intervals across study periods. Although consistent with falling typhoid incidence, we interpret this as showing substantial variation over the study periods. Given potential variation, multi-year surveillance may be warranted in locations making decisions about typhoid conjugate vaccine introduction and other control measures.

Performance of Xpert Ultra nasopharyngeal swab for identification of tuberculosis deaths in northern Tanzania.

OBJECTIVE: Numerous tuberculosis (TB) deaths remain undetected in low-resource endemic settings. With autopsy-confirmed tuberculosis as our standard, we assessed the diagnostic performance of Xpert MTB/RIF Ultra (Ultra; Cepheid) on nasopharyngeal specimens collected postmortem. METHODS: From October 2016 through May 2019, we enrolled pediatric and adult medical deaths to a prospective autopsy study at two referral hospitals in northern Tanzania with next-of-kin authorization. We swabbed the posterior nasopharynx prior to autopsy and tested the samples later by Ultra. At autopsy we collected lung, liver, and, when possible, cerebrospinal fluid for mycobacterial culture and histopathology. Confirmed tuberculosis was defined as Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex recovery by culture with consistent tissue histopathology findings; decedents with only histopathology findings, including acid-fast staining or immunohistochemistry, were defined as probable tuberculosis. RESULTS: Of 205 decedents, 78 (38.0%) were female and median (range) age was 45 (0,96) years. Twenty-seven (13.2%) were found to have tuberculosis at autopsy, 22 (81.5%) confirmed and 5 (18.5%) probable. Ultra detected M. tuberculosis complex from the nasopharynx in 21 (77.8%) of 27 TB cases (sensitivity 70.4% [95% confidence interval {CI} 49.8-86.2%], specificity 98.9% [95% CI 96.0-99.9%]). Among confirmed TB, the sensitivity increased to 81.8% (95% CI 59.7-94.8%). Tuberculosis was not included as a death certificate diagnosis in 14 (66.7%) of the 21 MTBc detections by Ultra. DISCUSSION: Nasopharyngeal Ultra was highly specific for identifying in-hospital tuberculosis deaths, including unsuspected tuberculosis deaths. This approach may improve tuberculosis death enumeration in high-burden countries.

Performance Assessment of the Universal Vital Assessment Score vs Other Illness Severity Scores for Predicting Risk of In-Hospital Death Among Adult Febrile Inpatients in Northern Tanzania, 2016-2019.

Importance: Severity scores are used to improve triage of hospitalized patients in high-income settings, but the scores may not translate well to low- and middle-income settings such as sub-Saharan Africa. Objective: To assess the performance of the Universal Vital Assessment (UVA) score, derived in 2017, compared with other illness severity scores for predicting in-hospital mortality among adults with febrile illness in northern Tanzania. Design, Setting, and Participants: This prognostic study used clinical data collected for the duration of hospitalization among patients with febrile illness admitted to Kilimanjaro Christian Medical Centre or Mawenzi Regional Referral Hospital in Moshi, Tanzania, from September 2016 through May 2019. All adult and pediatric patients with a history of fever within 72 hours or a tympanic temperature of 38.0 °C or higher at screening were eligible for enrollment. Of 3761 eligible participants, 1132 (30.1%) were enrolled in the parent study; of those, 597 adults 18 years or older were included in this analysis. Data were analyzed from December 2019 to September 2021. Exposures: Modified Early Warning Score (MEWS), National Early Warning Score (NEWS), quick Sequential Organ Failure Assessment (qSOFA), Systemic Inflammatory Response Syndrome (SIRS) assessment, and UVA. Main Outcomes and Measures: The main outcome was in-hospital mortality during the same hospitalization as the participant's enrollment. Crude risk ratios and 95% CIs for in-hospital death were calculated using log-binomial risk regression for proposed score cutoffs for each of the illness severity scores. The area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUROC) for estimating the risk of in-hospital death was calculated for each score. Results: Among 597 participants, the median age was 43 years (IQR, 31-56 years); 300 participants (50.3%) were female, 198 (33.2%) were HIV-infected, and in-hospital death occurred in 55 (9.2%). By higher risk score strata for each score, compared with lower risk strata, risk ratios for in-hospital death were 3.7 (95% CI, 2.2-6.2) for a MEWS of 5 or higher; 2.7 (95% CI, 0.9-7.8) for a NEWS of 5 or 6; 9.6 (95% CI, 4.2-22.2) for a NEWS of 7 or higher; 4.8 (95% CI, 1.2-20.2) for a qSOFA score of 1; 15.4 (95% CI, 3.8-63.1) for a qSOFA score of 2 or higher; 2.5 (95% CI, 1.2-5.2) for a SIRS score of 2 or higher; 9.1 (95% CI, 2.7-30.3) for a UVA score of 2 to 4; and 30.6 (95% CI, 9.6-97.8) for a UVA score of 5 or higher. The AUROCs, using all ordinal values, were 0.85 (95% CI, 0.80-0.90) for the UVA score, 0.81 (95% CI, 0.75-0.87) for the NEWS, 0.75 (95% CI, 0.69-0.82) for the MEWS, 0.73 (95% CI, 0.67-0.79) for the qSOFA score, and 0.63 (95% CI, 0.56-0.71) for the SIRS score. The AUROC for the UVA score was significantly greater than that for all other scores (P < .05 for all comparisons) except for NEWS (P = .08). Conclusions and Relevance: This prognostic study found that the NEWS and the UVA score performed favorably compared with other illness severity scores in predicting in-hospital mortality among a hospitalized cohort of adults with febrile illness in northern Tanzania. Given its reliance on readily available clinical data, the UVA score may have utility in the triage and prognostication of patients admitted to the hospital with febrile illness in low- to middle-income settings such as sub-Saharan Africa.

Incidence Estimates of Acute Q Fever and Spotted Fever Group Rickettsioses, Kilimanjaro, Tanzania, from 2007 to 2008 and from 2012 to 2014.

Q fever and spotted fever group rickettsioses (SFGR) are common causes of severe febrile illness in northern Tanzania. Incidence estimates are needed to characterize the disease burden. Using hybrid surveillance-coupling case-finding at two referral hospitals and healthcare utilization data-we estimated the incidences of acute Q fever and SFGR in Moshi, Kilimanjaro, Tanzania, from 2007 to 2008 and from 2012 to 2014. Cases were defined as fever and a four-fold or greater increase in antibody titers of acute and convalescent paired sera according to the indirect immunofluorescence assay of Coxiella burnetii phase II antigen for acute Q fever and Rickettsia conorii (2007-2008) or Rickettsia africae (2012-2014) antigens for SFGR. Healthcare utilization data were used to adjust for underascertainment of cases by sentinel surveillance. For 2007 to 2008, among 589 febrile participants, 16 (4.7%) of 344 and 27 (8.8%) of 307 participants with paired serology had Q fever and SFGR, respectively. Adjusted annual incidence estimates of Q fever and SFGR were 80 (uncertainty range, 20-454) and 147 (uncertainty range, 52-645) per 100,000 persons, respectively. For 2012 to 2014, among 1,114 febrile participants, 52 (8.1%) and 57 (8.9%) of 641 participants with paired serology had Q fever and SFGR, respectively. Adjusted annual incidence estimates of Q fever and SFGR were 56 (uncertainty range, 24-163) and 75 (uncertainty range, 34-176) per 100,000 persons, respectively. We found substantial incidences of acute Q fever and SFGR in northern Tanzania during both study periods. To our knowledge, these are the first incidence estimates of either disease in sub-Saharan Africa. Our findings suggest that control measures for these infections warrant consideration.

Trends in fever case management for febrile inpatients in a low malaria incidence setting of Tanzania.

OBJECTIVES: In 2010, WHO published guidelines emphasising parasitological confirmation of malaria before treatment. We present data on changes in fever case management in a low malaria transmission setting of northern Tanzania after 2010. METHODS: We compared diagnoses, treatments and outcomes from two hospital-based prospective cohort studies, Cohort 1 (2011-2014) and Cohort 2 (2016-2019), that enrolled febrile children and adults. All participants underwent quality-assured malaria blood smear-microscopy. Participants who were malaria smear-microscopy negative but received a diagnosis of malaria or received an antimalarial were categorised as malaria over-diagnosis and over-treatment, respectively. RESULTS: We analysed data from 2098 participants. The median (IQR) age was 27 (3-43) years and 1047 (50.0%) were female. Malaria was detected in 23 (2.3%) participants in Cohort 1 and 42 (3.8%) in Cohort 2 (p = 0.059). Malaria over-diagnosis occurred in 334 (35.0%) participants in Cohort 1 and 190 (17.7%) in Cohort 2 (p < 0.001). Malaria over-treatment occurred in 528 (55.1%) participants in Cohort 1 and 196 (18.3%) in Cohort 2 (p < 0.001). There were 30 (3.1%) deaths in Cohort 1 and 60 (5.4%) in Cohort 2 (p = 0.007). All deaths occurred among smear-negative participants. CONCLUSION: We observed a substantial decline in malaria over-diagnosis and over-treatment among febrile inpatients in northern Tanzania between two time periods after 2010. Despite changes, some smear-negative participants were still diagnosed and treated for malaria. Our results highlight the need for continued monitoring of fever case management across different malaria epidemiological settings in sub-Saharan Africa.

Investigation of Melioidosis Using Blood Culture and Indirect Hemagglutination Assay Serology among Patients with Fever, Northern Tanzania.

Prediction models indicate that melioidosis may be common in parts of East Africa, but there are few empiric data. We evaluated the prevalence of melioidosis among patients presenting with fever to hospitals in Tanzania. Patients with fever were enrolled at two referral hospitals in Moshi, Tanzania, during 2007-2008, 2012-2014, and 2016-2019. Blood was collected from participants for aerobic culture. Bloodstream isolates were identified by conventional biochemical methods. Non-glucose-fermenting Gram-negative bacilli were further tested using a Burkholderia pseudomallei latex agglutination assay. Also, we performed B. pseudomallei indirect hemagglutination assay (IHA) serology on serum samples from participants enrolled from 2012 to 2014 and considered at high epidemiologic risk of melioidosis on the basis of admission within 30 days of rainfall. We defined confirmed melioidosis as isolation of B. pseudomallei from blood culture, probable melioidosis as a ≥ 4-fold rise in antibody titers between acute and convalescent sera, and seropositivity as a single antibody titer ≥ 40. We enrolled 3,716 participants and isolated non-enteric Gram-negative bacilli in five (2.5%) of 200 with bacteremia. As none of these five isolates was B. pseudomallei, there were no confirmed melioidosis cases. Of 323 participants tested by IHA, 142 (44.0%) were male, and the median (range) age was 27 (0-70) years. We identified two (0.6%) cases of probable melioidosis, and 57 (17.7%) were seropositive. The absence of confirmed melioidosis from 9 years of fever surveillance indicates melioidosis was not a major cause of illness.

Interleukin-1 receptor antagonist anakinra in association with remdesivir in severe COVID-19: A case report.

We report the first successful treatment with the IL-1 receptor antagonist anakinra, in association with the most promising and available antiviral therapy, of a severe case of novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). We describe the diagnosis, clinical course, and management of the case, including the respiratory failure at presentation, the progression to a scenario characterized by profound inflammatory dysregulation similar to that observed during macrophage activation syndrome, and the clinical improvement after treatment with the IL-1 receptor antagonist anakinra. This case highlights the high tolerability and the interesting immunomodulatory profile of the IL-1 receptor antagonist anakinra in the setting of severe COVID-19 associated with remdesivir therapy. Further studies are needed to confirm the safety and efficacy of this combination strategy in the treatment of this emerging infection.

Bacterial etiology of community-acquired pneumonia in immunocompetent hospitalized patients and appropriateness of empirical treatment recommendations: an international point-prevalence study.

An accurate knowledge of the epidemiology of community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) is key for selecting appropriate antimicrobial treatments. Very few etiological studies assessed the appropriateness of empiric guideline recommendations at a multinational level. This study aims at the following: (i) describing the bacterial etiologic distribution of CAP and (ii) assessing the appropriateness of the empirical treatment recommendations by clinical practice guidelines (CPGs) for CAP in light of the bacterial pathogens diagnosed as causative agents of CAP. Secondary analysis of the GLIMP, a point-prevalence international study which enrolled adults hospitalized with CAP in 2015. The analysis was limited to immunocompetent patients tested for bacterial CAP agents within 24 h of admission. The CAP CPGs evaluated included the following: the 2007 and 2019 American Thoracic Society/Infectious Diseases Society of America (ATS/IDSA), the European Respiratory Society (ERS), and selected country-specific CPGs. Among 2564 patients enrolled, 35.3% had an identifiable pathogen. Streptococcus pneumoniae (8.2%) was the most frequently identified pathogen, followed by Pseudomonas aeruginosa (4.1%) and Klebsiella pneumoniae (3.4%). CPGs appropriately recommend covering more than 90% of all the potential pathogens causing CAP, with the exception of patients enrolled from Germany, Pakistan, and Croatia. The 2019 ATS/IDSA CPGs appropriately recommend covering 93.6% of the cases compared with 90.3% of the ERS CPGs (p < 0.01). S. pneumoniae remains the most common pathogen in patients hospitalized with CAP. Multinational CPG recommendations for patients with CAP seem to appropriately cover the most common pathogens and should be strongly encouraged for the management of CAP patients.

Zoonotic causes of febrile illness in malaria endemic countries: a systematic review.

Fever is one of the most common reasons for seeking health care globally and most human pathogens are zoonotic. We conducted a systematic review to describe the occurrence and distribution of zoonotic causes of human febrile illness reported in malaria endemic countries. We included data from 53 (48·2%) of 110 malaria endemic countries and 244 articles that described diagnosis of 30 zoonoses in febrile people. The majority (17) of zoonoses were bacterial, with nine viruses, three protozoa, and one helminth also identified. Leptospira species and non-typhoidal salmonella serovars were the most frequently reported pathogens. Despite evidence of profound data gaps, this Review reveals widespread distribution of multiple zoonoses that cause febrile illness. Greater understanding of the epidemiology of zoonoses in different settings is needed to improve awareness about these pathogens and the management of febrile illness.

Challenges in the Diagnosis and Management of Bacterial Lung Infections in Solid Organ Recipients: A Narrative Review.

Respiratory infections pose a significant threat to the success of solid organ transplantation, and the diagnosis and management of these infections are challenging. The current narrative review addressed some of these challenges, based on evidence from the literature published in the last 20 years. Specifically, we focused our attention on (i) the obstacles to an etiologic diagnosis of respiratory infections among solid organ transplant recipients, (ii) the management of bacterial respiratory infections in an era characterized by increased antimicrobial resistance, and (iii) the development of antimicrobial stewardship programs dedicated to solid organ transplant recipients.

A prospective study of Escherichia coli bloodstream infection among adolescents and adults in northern Tanzania.

BACKGROUND: Characterization of the epidemiology of Escherichia coli bloodstream infection (BSI) in sub-Saharan Africa is lacking. We studied patients with E. coli BSI in northern Tanzania to describe host risk factors for infection and to describe the antimicrobial susceptibility of isolates. METHODS: Within 24 h of admission, patients presenting with a fever at two hospitals in Moshi, Tanzania, were screened and enrolled. Cases were patients with at least one blood culture yielding E. coli and controls were those without E. coli isolated from any blood culture. Logistic regression was used to identify host risk factors for E. coli BSI. RESULTS: We analyzed data from 33 cases and 1615 controls enrolled from 2007 through 2018. The median (IQR) age of cases was 47 (34-57) y and 24 (72.7%) were female. E. coli BSI was associated with (adjusted OR [aOR], 95% CI) increasing years of age (1.03, 1.01 to 1.05), female gender (2.20, 1.01 to 4.80), abdominal tenderness (2.24, 1.06 to 4.72) and urinary tract infection as a discharge diagnosis (3.71, 1.61 to 8.52). Of 31 isolates with antimicrobial susceptibility results, the prevalence of resistance was ampicillin 29 (93.6%), ceftriaxone three (9.7%), ciprofloxacin five (16.1%), gentamicin seven (22.6%) and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole 31 (100.0%). CONCLUSIONS: In Tanzania, host risk factors for E. coli BSI were similar to those reported in high-resource settings and resistance to key antimicrobials was common.

Fever, bacterial zoonoses, and One Health in sub-Saharan Africa.

Although often underappreciated, a number of bacterial zoonoses are endemic in Africa. Of these, brucellosis, leptospirosis, Q fever, and rickettsioses are responsible for a substantial proportion of febrile illness among patients seeking hospital care. In this paper, we discuss the aetiology, epidemiology, clinical presentation, diagnosis, treatment and prevention of these bacterial zoonoses. To prevent and control bacterial zoonoses, strategies targeting both animals and humans are crucial. These may lead to better outcomes than strategies based exclusively on treatment of human infections. Such strategies are referred to as the 'One Health' approach; the collaborative effort of multiple disciplines to attain optimal health for people, animals and the environment.

International prevalence and risk factors evaluation for drug-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae pneumonia.

OBJECTIVE: Streptococcus pneumoniae is the most frequent bacterial pathogen isolated in subjects with Community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) worldwide. Limited data are available regarding the current global burden and risk factors associated with drug-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae (DRSP) in CAP subjects. We assessed the multinational prevalence and risk factors for DRSP-CAP in a multinational point-prevalence study. DESIGN: The prevalence of DRSP-CAP was assessed by identification of DRSP in blood or respiratory samples among adults hospitalized with CAP in 54 countries. Prevalence and risk factors were compared among subjects that had microbiological testing and antibiotic susceptibility data. Multivariate logistic regressions were used to identify risk factors independently associated with DRSP-CAP. RESULTS: 3,193 subjects were included in the study. The global prevalence of DRSP-CAP was 1.3% and continental prevalence rates were 7.0% in Africa, 1.2% in Asia, and 1.0% in South America, Europe, and North America, respectively. Macrolide resistance was most frequently identified in subjects with DRSP-CAP (0.6%) followed by penicillin resistance (0.5%). Subjects in Africa were more likely to have DRSP-CAP (OR: 7.6; 95%CI: 3.34-15.35, p<0.001) when compared to centres representing other continents. CONCLUSIONS: This multinational point-prevalence study found a low global prevalence of DRSP-CAP that may impact guideline development and antimicrobial policies.