Bariatric surgery and calcifediol treatment, Gordian knot of severe-obesity-related comorbidities treatment.

Background: Obesity (OB) is a chronic metabolic disease with important associated comorbidities and mortality. Vitamin D supplementation is frequently administered after bariatric surgery (BS), so as to reduce OB-related complications, maybe including chronic inflammation. Aim: This study aimed to explore relations between vitamin D metabolites and components of the inflammasome machinery in OB before and after BS and their relations with the improvement of metabolic comorbidities. Patients and methods: Epidemiological/clinical/anthropometric/biochemical evaluation was performed in patients with OB at baseline and 6 months after BS. Evaluation of i) vitamin-D metabolites in plasma and ii) components of the inflammasome machinery and inflammatory-associated factors [NOD-like-receptors (NLRs), inflammasome-activation-components, cytokines and inflammation/apoptosis-related components, and cell-cycle and DNA-damage regulators] in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) was performed at baseline and 6 months after BS. Clinical and molecular correlations/associations were analyzed. Results: Significant correlations between vitamin D metabolites and inflammasome-machinery components were observed at baseline, and these correlations were significantly reduced 6 months after BS in parallel to a decrease in inflammation markers, fat mass, and body weight. Treatment with calcifediol remarkably increased 25OHD levels, despite 24,25(OH)2D3 remained stable after BS. Several inflammasome-machinery components were associated with improvement in metabolic comorbidities, especially hypertension and dyslipidemia. Conclusion: The beneficial effects of vitamin D on OB-related comorbidities after BS patients are associated with significant changes in the molecular expression of key inflammasome-machinery components. The expression profile of these inflammasome components can be dynamically modulated in PBMCs after BS and vitamin D supplementation, suggesting that this profile could likely serve as a sensor and early predictor of the reversal of OB-related complications after BS.

Fases del desarrollo de biomarcadores para la detección temprana del cáncer / Phases of the development of biomarkers for early detection of cancer

Introducción. Un biomarcador se define como una alteración molecular presente en el desarrollo de la patogénesis del cáncer, que puede ser utilizada para el diagnóstico temprano de la enfermedad. La medición del biomarcador se hace por medio de diversas técnicas, como bioquímica, inmunohistoquímica o biología molecular, en diferentes tipos de muestras, como tejido, sangre periférica y orina. El biomarcador ideal será aquel que sea válido y específico a la vez, que sea no invasivo, barato y fácilmente detectable. El uso de biomarcadores para la detección temprana del cáncer debe seguir un desarrollo ordenado y sistemático antes de introducirlos en la práctica clínica. Métodos. Se realizó una búsqueda exhaustiva en las bases de datos de PubMed y Embase, seleccionando los artículos pertinentes para revisarlos acorde a la temática específica de interés. Resultados. Se propone la sistematización del desarrollo de biomarcadores en cinco grandes fases, las cuales tienen la característica de ser ordenadas desde las evidencias más tempranas hasta las fases finales de su estudio. Conclusiones. El correcto desarrollo de biomarcadores hace posible la introducción de intervenciones terapéuticas en el ámbito de la prevención secundaria del cáncer.

Introduction. A biomarker can be defined as a molecular alteration present in the development of cancer pathogenesis which can be used for early diagnosis of the disease. The measurement of the biomarker can be carried out through various techniques such as biochemistry, immunohistochemistry, molecular biology, in different types of samples such as tissue, peripheral blood, and urine. The ideal biomarker will be one that is valid and specific while is non-invasive, cheap, and easily detectable. The use of biomarkers for the early detection of cancer must follow an orderly and systematic development before introducing them into clinical practice. Methods. An exhaustive search was performed in PubMed and Embase databases, selecting the relevant articles according to the specific topic of interest. Results. Systematization of the development of biomarkers in five large phases is proposed, which has the characteristic of being ordered from the earliest evidence to the final phases of their study. Conclusions. The correct development of biomarkers makes possible the introduction of therapeutic interventions in the field of secondary prevention of cancer.

Pruebas diagnósticas de tamizaje / Diagnostic screening tests

Introducción. Las pruebas diagnósticas de tamizaje son aquellas pruebas que son capaces de identificar un factor de riesgo o mutaciones genéticas que predicen el inicio ulterior de la enfermedad, así como también las pruebas que ponen de manifiesto alteraciones estructurales de la enfermedad antes que la enfermedad progrese y se vuelva sintomática. Métodos. Se hizo una revisión de la literatura para establecer los fundamentos teóricos científicos que sustentan a las pruebas de diagnóstico de tamizaje y las condiciones y requisitos que se deben cumplir para introducirlas en el ámbito clínico o como programas de salud pública. Resultados. Se estableció la diferencia conceptual entre la detección precoz y el diagnóstico temprano y la diferencia entre tamizaje de prevalencia y tamizaje de incidencia. Se dieron a conocer las indicaciones y criterios científicos para la realización de las pruebas de tamizaje. Se puntualizó la importancia de la duración del tiempo de adelanto en la eficacia de las pruebas diagnósticas de detección precoz. Se argumentaron las razones por las cuales era necesario la realización de experimentos clínicos aleatorizados para evaluar la eficacia de las pruebas diagnósticas de detección precoz en la prevención secundaria de la enfermedad. Conclusiones. Las pruebas diagnósticas de tamizaje hacen posible la introducción de intervenciones en el ámbito de la prevención primaria, como también en el escenario de la prevención secundaria de las enfermedades.

Introduction. Screening diagnostic tests are those tests that help to identify a risk factor or genetic mutations that predict the subsequent onset of the disease, as well as tests that reveal structural alterations of the disease before the disease progresses and becomes symptomatic. Methods. A literature review was performed to establish the scientific theoretical fundamentals that support diagnostic screening tests and the conditions and requirements that must be met to introduce them in the clinical setting or as public health programs. Results. The conceptual difference between early detection and early diagnosis and the difference between prevalence screening and incidence screening was established. Indications and scientific criteria for conducting screening tests were presented. The importance of the duration of the lead time in the efficacy of early detection diagnostic tests was pointed out. The reasons why it was necessary to carry out a randomized clinical experiment to evaluate the efficacy of early detection diagnostic tests for early diagnosis in the secondary prevention of the disease were confronted. Conclusions. Screening diagnostic tests make it possible to introduce interventions in the field of primary prevention, as well as in the setting of secondary prevention of diseases.

Terapia endocrina para la prevención primaria del cáncer de seno: Revisión sistemática y metaanálisis actualizado / Endocrine therapy for primary prevention of breast cancer: Systematic review and updated meta-analysis

Introducción. Debido a que el cáncer de seno es una enfermedad asociada a una significativa tasa de morbilidad y mortalidad cuando se diagnostica en el período sintomático, se han hecho enormes esfuerzos orientados hacia la prevención primaria de esta enfermedad. Métodos. Se realizó una búsqueda de todos los experimentos clínicos aleatorizados que evaluaran la eficacia de la terapia endocrina para la reducción del riesgo de desarrollar cáncer de seno. La calidad metodológica de los estudios seleccionados fue valorada utilizando la herramienta de la Colaboración Cochrane para medir el riesgo de sesgo en ensayos aleatorizados. Se evaluó la heterogeneidad de los estudios primarios elegibles utilizando los estadísticos T², I², H². El sesgo de publicación fue evaluado mediante el test de Harbord y mediante la gráfica de funnel plot. La medida de efecto utilizada en este metaanálisis fue el riesgo relativo (RR) con el cálculo de los intervalos de confianza (IC) del 95%. Resultados. Encontramos doce experimentos clínicos aleatorizados que reclutaron a 68.180 mujeres, las cuales fueron asignadas al azar para recibir algún tipo terapia endocrina para reducir el riesgo de desarrollar cáncer de seno o placebo. La terapia endocrina en conjunto redujo el riesgo proporcional de cáncer de seno (invasivo más in situ) en un 42 %, resultado estadísticamente significativo RR 0,58 (IC95% 0,50 ­ 0,69). Conclusiones. La terapia endocrina es el manejo estándar de prevención en mujeres sanas con riesgo de desarrollar cáncer de seno no hereditario.

Introduction. Because breast cancer is a disease associated with a significant morbidity and mortality rate when diagnosed in the symptomatic period, enormous efforts have been made towards the primary prevention of this disease. Methods. A search was conducted for all randomized clinical trials evaluating the efficacy of endocrine therapy in reducing the risk of developing breast cancer. The methodological quality of the selected studies was assessed using the Cochrane Collaboration tool to assess risk of bias in randomized trials. Heterogeneity of eligible primary studies was assessed using the T², I², H² statistics. Publication bias was evaluated using the Harbord test and the funnel plot. The effect measure used in this meta-analysis was the relative risk (RR) with the calculation of the 95% confidence intervals (CI).Results. We found twelve randomized clinical trials that recruited 68,180 women who were randomly assigned to receive some type of endocrine therapy to reduce the risk of developing breast cancer or placebo. Endocrine therapy as a whole reduced the proportional risk of breast cancer (invasive plus in situ) by 42%, a statistically significant result RR 0.58 (95% CI 0.50 - 0.69). Conclusions. Endocrine therapy is the standard preventive management in healthy women at risk of developing non-hereditary breast cancer.

Dysregulation of Components of the Inflammasome Machinery After Bariatric Surgery: Novel Targets for a Chronic Disease.

BACKGROUND: Obesity is a metabolic chronic disease with important associated morbidities and mortality. Bariatric surgery is the most effective treatment for maintaining long-term weight loss in severe obesity and, consequently, for decreasing obesity-related complications, including chronic inflammation. AIM: To explore changes in components of the inflammasome machinery after bariatric surgery and their relation with clinical/biochemical parameters at baseline and 6 months after bariatric surgery. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Twenty-two patients with morbid-obesity that underwent bariatric surgery (sleeve gastrectomy and Roux-en-Y gastric bypass) were included. Epidemiological/clinical/anthropometric/biochemical evaluation was performed at baseline and 6 months after bariatric surgery. Inflammasome components and inflammatory-associated factors [nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptors (NLRs), inflammasome activation components, cytokines and inflammation/apoptosis-related components, and cell-cycle and DNA-damage regulators) were evaluated in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) at baseline and 6 months after bariatric surgery. Clinical molecular correlations/associations were analyzed. Functional parameters (lipid accumulation/viability/apoptosis) were analyzed in response to specific inflammasome components silencing in liver HepG2 cells). RESULTS: A profound dysregulation of inflammasome components after bariatric surgery was found, especially in NLRs and cell-cycle and DNA damage regulators. Several components were associated with baseline metabolic comorbidities including type 2 diabetes (C-C motif chemokine ligand 2/C-X-C motif chemokine receptor 1/sirtuin 1), hypertension (absent in melanoma 2/ASC/purinergic receptor P2X 7), and dyslipidemia [C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 3 (CXCL3)/NLR family pyrin domain containing (NLRP) 7) and displayed changes in their molecular profile 6 months after bariatric surgery. The gene expression fingerprint of certain factors NLR family CARD domain containing 4 (NLRC4)/NLRP12/CXCL3)/C-C motif chemokine ligand 8/toll-like receptor 4) accurately differentiated pre- and postoperative PBMCs. Most changes were independent of the performed surgical technique. Silencing of NLRC4/NLRP12 resulted in altered lipid accumulation, apoptosis rate, and cell viability in HepG2 cells. CONCLUSION: Bariatric surgery induces a profound alteration in the gene expression pattern of components of the inflammasome machinery in PBMCs. Expression and changes of certain inflammasome components are associated to baseline metabolic comorbidities, including type 2 diabetes, and may be related to the improvement and reversion of some obesity-related comorbidities after bariatric surgery.

Genomics-informed models reveal extensive stretches of coastline under threat by an ecologically dominant invasive species.

Explaining why some species are widespread, while others are not, is fundamental to biogeography, ecology, and evolutionary biology. A unique way to study evolutionary and ecological mechanisms that either limit species' spread or facilitate range expansions is to conduct research on species that have restricted distributions. Nonindigenous species, particularly those that are highly invasive but have not yet spread beyond the introduced site, represent ideal systems to study range size changes. Here, we used species distribution modeling and genomic data to study the restricted range of a highly invasive Australian marine species, the ascidian Pyura praeputialis This species is an aggressive space occupier in its introduced range (Chile), where it has fundamentally altered the coastal community. We found high genomic diversity in Chile, indicating high adaptive potential. In addition, genomic data clearly showed that a single region from Australia was the only donor of genotypes to the introduced range. We identified over 3,500 km of suitable habitat adjacent to its current introduced range that has so far not been occupied, and importantly species distribution models were only accurate when genomic data were considered. Our results suggest that a slight change in currents, or a change in shipping routes, may lead to an expansion of the species' introduced range that will encompass a vast portion of the South American coast. Our study shows how the use of population genomics and species distribution modeling in combination can unravel mechanisms shaping range sizes and forecast future range shifts of invasive species.

Rebuilding marine life.

Sustainable Development Goal 14 of the United Nations aims to "conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development". Achieving this goal will require rebuilding the marine life-support systems that deliver the many benefits that society receives from a healthy ocean. Here we document the recovery of marine populations, habitats and ecosystems following past conservation interventions. Recovery rates across studies suggest that substantial recovery of the abundance, structure and function of marine life could be achieved by 2050, if major pressures-including climate change-are mitigated. Rebuilding marine life represents a doable Grand Challenge for humanity, an ethical obligation and a smart economic objective to achieve a sustainable future.

Illegal fishing and territorial user rights in Chile.

Illegal fishing poses a major threat to conservation of marine resources worldwide. However, there is still limited empirical research that quantifies illegal catch levels. We used the randomized response technique to estimate the proportion of divers and the quantities of loco (Concholepas concholepas) they extracted illegally. Loco have been managed for the past 17 years through a territorial user rights for fisheries system (TURFs) in Chile. Illegal fishing of loco was widespread within the TURFs system. Official reported landings (i.e., legal landings) accounted for 14-30% of the total loco extraction. Our estimates suggest that ignoring the magnitude of illegal fishing and considering only official landing statistics may lead to false conclusions about the status and trends of a TURFs managed fishery. We found evidence of fisher associations authorizing their members to poach inside TURFs, highlighting the need to design TURFs systems so that government agencies and fishers' incentives and objectives align through continuous adaptation. Government support for enforcement is a key element for the TURFs system to secure the rights that are in place.

Marine reserves can mitigate and promote adaptation to climate change.

Strong decreases in greenhouse gas emissions are required to meet the reduction trajectory resolved within the 2015 Paris Agreement. However, even these decreases will not avert serious stress and damage to life on Earth, and additional steps are needed to boost the resilience of ecosystems, safeguard their wildlife, and protect their capacity to supply vital goods and services. We discuss how well-managed marine reserves may help marine ecosystems and people adapt to five prominent impacts of climate change: acidification, sea-level rise, intensification of storms, shifts in species distribution, and decreased productivity and oxygen availability, as well as their cumulative effects. We explore the role of managed ecosystems in mitigating climate change by promoting carbon sequestration and storage and by buffering against uncertainty in management, environmental fluctuations, directional change, and extreme events. We highlight both strengths and limitations and conclude that marine reserves are a viable low-tech, cost-effective adaptation strategy that would yield multiple cobenefits from local to global scales, improving the outlook for the environment and people into the future.

Distal impacts of aquarium trade: Exploring the emerging sandhopper (Orchestoidea tuberculata) artisanal shore gathering fishery in Chile.

Artisanal fishery activities support the livelihoods of millions of people worldwide, particularly in developing countries. Within these fisheries, distal global drivers can promote switching between alternative target resources. These drivers can promote the rapid development of new, unregulated and previously unexploited fisheries that pose a threat to the sustainability of ecosystems. In this paper, we describe a new artisanal shore gathering activity that targets a previously unexploited resource: the sandhopper (Orchestoidea tuberculata). The activity is driven by aquarium trade demand for food. We used mixed methods to describe the activity, assessed basic socio-economic incentives, and estimated Catches per Unit Effort. Results show that the sandhopper plays an important role for the livelihoods of shore gatherers engaged in the activity. Gatherers have adapted and developed two main extraction methods with different degrees of investment and extraction rates. Furthermore, gatherers have developed local knowledge regarding the ecology and management of the resource. Results show that economic incentives can motivate a rapid expansion of this unregulated activity. Future research gaps and management options to address the development of this fishery are discussed in light of these findings.

Achieving biodiversity benefits with offsets: Research gaps, challenges, and needs.

Biodiversity offsets are becoming increasingly common across a portfolio of settings: national policy, voluntary programs, international lending, and corporate business structures. Given the diversity of ecological, political, and socio-economic systems where offsets may be applied, place-based information is likely to be most useful in designing and implementing offset programs, along with guiding principles that assure best practice. We reviewed the research on biodiversity offsets to explore gaps and needs. While the peer-reviewed literature on offsets is growing rapidly, it is heavily dominated by ecological theory, wetland ecosystems, and U.S.-based research. Given that majority of offset policies and programs are occurring in middle- and low-income countries, the research gaps we identified present a number of risks. They also present an opportunity to create regionally based learning platforms focused on pilot projects and institutional capacity building. Scientific research should diversify, both topically and geographically, in order to support the successful design, implementation, and monitoring of biodiversity offset programs.

View Points of an Ecologist on Practical Environmental Ethic: Socioecology, Common-Pool Resources and Conservation.

The paper centers on environmental practical ethic point of views according to a professional ecologist. Ecology and the science of Socio-ecology are defined. The framework of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment initiative (MA 2003), including the use of ecosystems as the environmental unit of analysis, ecosystem services and human well-being as the center for assessment are discussed. Common-pool resources (CPR) and the allegory of the tragedy of the commons are used to illustrate main scientific and ethical environmental approaches, and above all to highlight the case of climate change, considering ″air-atmosphere″ as a CPR. The need to adopt practical personal environmental ethical positions is highlighted. Furthermore, on climate change, a discussion on the need to develop environmental and socio-ecological polycentric approaches: top-down and bottom-up, is included. An updated discussion on the concept of conservation, including main scientific and ethic points of view, is presented. Pope Francis's Encyclical, Laudato Si', is used to highlight environmental, socio-ecological and ethical aspects behind the comprehensive concept of Integral Ecology. The paper ends with a short synthesis on Earth modern unseen and astonishing environmental and socio-ecological rates of changes, and identifying the main barriers for personal environmental engagement. A call is done regarding the urgent need for socio-environmental ethic personal engagement and collective actions.

Tragedia de los recursos de uso común y ética ambiental individual responsable frente al calentamiento global / Tragédia dos recursos de uso comum e ética ambiental individual responsável frente ao aquecimento global / Tragedy of the common pool resources and environmental ethics individually liable to global warming

La tragedia de los recursos de uso común (sobreexplotación, contaminación) es una metáfora bien acuñada en la literatura. El aire es un recurso de uso común, sobre el que no existe propiedad privada. El problema del calentamiento global, derivado del exceso de gases de efecto invernadero (CO2, NO2, metano), generados por actividades humanas y el excesivo consumismo, y que se almacenan en la alta atmósfera causando cambios climáticos, es hoy una tragedia. Vivimos una nueva Era llamada del Antropoceno. Las soluciones monocéntricas globales a esta tragedia, de arriba hacia abajo -por ejemplo, Protocolo de Kyoto, de 1997- han fracasado. El artículo destaca la necesidad urgente de comenzar a usar soluciones estratégicas policéntricas -de abajo hacia arriba-, acciones individuales y colectivas, en conjunto con las globales, para enfrentar la tragedia. Ello debe basarse en la instalación masiva de una nueva ética ambiental responsable, basada, por ejemplo, en el principio ético de responsabilidad individual de Kutz. Para ello se necesita poner en acción una ciencia ambiental posmoderna, creíble, con una democratización del conocimiento, y alfabetizar a la sociedad en forma simple y directa sobre la información dura del cambio climático en todas sus dimensiones: negativas, positivas y de nuevas oportunidades. Los medios de comunicación social masivos pueden ser la clave para lograr este objetivo.

The tragedy of the commons (overexploitation, pollution) is a metaphor well anchored in the literature. The air is a common pool resource and private property does not exist. The global warming of the planet, caused by excess greenhouse gas emissions (CO2, NO2, methane), generated by human activities and consuming society, which are stored in the high atmosphere causing climatic changes, is today a tragedy. We live in a new Era, that of the Antrophocene. Monocentric solutions to this tragedy: topdown -for instance the Kyoto Protocol of 1997- have failed. The article highlights the urgent need to implement polycentric solutions to face the tragedy: bottomup, individual and collective actions in concurrence with topdown strategies. This needs to be based in the installation of a new environmental responsible ethic, for instance based in the individual responsible Kutz ethic principle. For this is needed to promote, as soon as possible, a postmodern environmental science, with credibility and a true democratization of knowledge. Moreover, there is a need for environmental alphabetization of our society based on hard knowledge about climatic changes and global warming, in all dimensions: negative, positive, new opportunities. The use of massive communication tools may be the key to achieve the goal.

A tragédia dos recursos de uso comum (superexploração, contaminação) é uma metáfora bem cunhada na literatura. O ar é um recurso de uso comum, sobre o qual não existe propriedade privada. O problema do aquecimento global derivado do excesso de gases de efeito estufa (CO2, NO2, metano), gerados por atividades humanas e o excessivo consumismo, que se armazenam na alta atmosfera causando mudanças climáticas, é hoje uma tragédia. Vivemos uma nova Era chamada de Antropoceno. As soluções monocêntricas globais a esta tragédia, de cima para baixo por exemplo, Protocolo de Kyoto de 1997 fracassaram. O artigo destaca a necessidade urgente de começar a usar soluções estratégicas policêntricas de baixo para cima , ações individuais e coletivas, em conjunto com as globais, para enfrentar a tragédia. Isso tem que basearse na instalação massiva de uma nova ética ambiental responsável por exemplo, baseada no princípio ético de responsabilidade individual de Kutz. Para isso se necessita por em acção uma ciência ambiental pósmoderna, crível, com uma democratização do conhecimento, e alfabetizar a sociedade de forma simples e direta sobre a informação dura da mudança climática em todas suas dimensões: negativas, positivas, novas oportunidades. Os meios de comunicação social massivos podem ser a chave para lograr este objetivo.

Tragedia de los recursos de uso común y ética ambiental individual responsable frente al calentamiento global / Tragedy of the common pool resources and environmental ethics individually liable to global warming

La tragedia de los recursos de uso común (sobreexplotación, contaminación) es una metáfora bien acuñada en la literatura. El aire es un recurso de uso común, sobre el que no existe propiedad privada. El problema del calentamiento global, derivado del exceso de gases de efecto invernadero (CO2, NO2, metano), generados por actividades humanas y el excesivo consumismo, y que se almacenan en la alta atmósfera causando cambios climáticos, es hoy una tragedia. Vivimos una nueva Era llamada del Antropoceno. Las soluciones monocéntricas globales a esta tragedia, de arriba hacia abajo —por ejemplo, Protocolo de Kyoto, de 1997— han fracasado. El artículo destaca la necesidad urgente de comenzar a usar soluciones estratégicas policéntricas —de abajo hacia arriba—, acciones individuales y colectivas, en conjunto con las globales, para enfrentar la tragedia. Ello debe basarse en la instalación masiva de una nueva ética ambiental responsable, basada, por ejemplo, en el principio ético de responsabilidad individual de Kutz. Para ello se necesita poner en acción una ciencia ambiental posmoderna, creíble, con una democratización del conocimiento, y alfabetizar a la sociedad en forma simple y directa sobre la información dura del cambio climático en todas sus dimensiones: negativas, positivas y de nuevas oportunidades. Los medios de comunicación social masivos pueden ser la clave para lograr este objetivo.(AU)

The tragedy of the commons (overexploitation, pollution) is a metaphor well anchored in the literature. The air is a common pool resource and private property does not exist. The global warming of the planet, caused by excess greenhouse gas emissions (CO2, NO2, methane), generated by human activities and consuming society, which are stored in the high at- mosphere causing climatic changes, is today a tragedy. We live in a new Era, that of the Antrophocene. Monocentric solutions to this tragedy: top-down —for instance the Kyoto Protocol of 1997— have failed. The article highlights the urgent need to implement polycentric solutions to face the tragedy: bottom-up, individual and collective actions in concurrence with top- down strategies. This needs to be based in the installation of a new environmental responsible ethic, for instance based in the individual responsible Kutz ethic principle. For this is needed to promote, as soon as possible, a postmodern environmental science, with credibility and a true democratization of knowledge. Moreover, there is a need for environmental alphabetization of our society based on hard knowledge about climatic changes and global warming, in all dimensions: negative, positive, new opportunities. The use of massive communication tools may be the key to achieve the goal.(AU)

A tragédia dos recursos de uso comum (superexploração, contaminação) é uma metáfora bem cunhada na literatura. O ar é um recurso de uso comum, sobre o qual não existe propriedade privada. O problema do aquecimento global derivado do excesso de gases de efeito estufa (CO2, NO2, metano), gerados por atividades humanas e o excessivo consumismo, que se armazenam na alta atmosfera causando mudanças climáticas, é hoje uma tragédia. Vivemos uma nova Era chamada de An- tropoceno. As soluções monocêntricas globais a esta tragédia, de cima para baixo - por exemplo, Protocolo de Kyoto de 1997 - fracassaram. O artigo destaca a necessidade urgente de começar a usar soluções estratégicas policêntricas - de baixo para cima -, ações individuais e coletivas, em conjunto com as globais, para enfrentar a tragédia. Isso tem que basear-se na instalação mas- siva de uma nova ética ambiental responsável por exemplo, baseada no princípio ético de responsabilidade individual de Kutz. Para isso se necessita por em acção uma ciência ambiental pós-moderna, crível, com uma democratização do conhecimento, e alfabetizar a sociedade de forma simples e direta sobre a informação dura da mudança climática em todas suas dimensões: negativas, positivas, novas oportunidades. Os meios de comunicação social massivos podem ser a chave para lograr este objetivo.(AU)

Rocky intertidal zonation pattern in Antofagasta, chile: invasive species and shellfish gathering.

BACKGROUND: Biological invasions affecting rocky intertidal zonation patterns, yield information on species interactions. In the Bay of Antofagasta, northern Chile, the non-indigenous tunicate Pyura praeputialis, originally from Australia, has invaded (in the past century or so) and monopolized a major portion of the mid-intertidal rocky shore, displacing upshore the native mussel Perumytilus purpuratus. In Antofagasta the tunicate is subjected to intensive exploitation. Monitoring protocols show that in the past 10 years Antofagasta's tunicate population has experienced a drastic decline, affecting the intertidal zonation pattern. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: A 12.5 km of coastline, on the southern eastern shore of the Bay of Antofagasta, was studied. Eight sites were systematically (1993-1994) or sporadically (2003-2014) monitored for the seaward-shoreward expansion or reduction of the tunicate Pyura praeputialis, and native mussel and barnacle bands. A notable reduction in the mid-intertidal band of P. praeputialis and a seaward expansion of the mussel, Perumytilus purpuratus, and barnacle bands was observed. We suggest that the major cause for the decline in the tunicate is due to its intensive exploitation by rocky shore Pyura-gathers. The rate of extraction of tunicates by professional Pyura-gathers ranged between 256-740 tunicates hour-(1). Between 2009-2014 the density of professional Pyura-gather ranged between 0.5-4.5 km(-1) per low tide. Hence, 10 professional Pyura-gathers working 1 h for 10 low tides per month, during 6 months, will remove between 307-888 m(2) of tunicates. A drastic decline in tunicate recruitment was observed and several P. praeputialis ecosystems services have been lost. CONCLUSION AND SIGNIFICANCE: In Antofagasta, the continuous and intensive intertidal gathering of the invasive tunicate Pyura praeputialis, has caused a drastic reduction of its population modifying the zonation pattern. Thereby, native mussel Perumytilus purpuratus has regained its ecological center in the intertidal zone. We recorded a Pyura recruitment failure and loss of ecosystem services.

Public awareness, concerns, and priorities about anthropogenic impacts on marine environments.

Numerous international bodies have advocated the development of strategies to achieve the sustainability of marine environments. Typically, such strategies are based on information from expert groups about causes of degradation and policy options to address them, but these strategies rarely take into account assessed information about public awareness, concerns, and priorities. Here we report the results of a pan-European survey of public perceptions about marine environmental impacts as a way to inform the formation of science and policy priorities. On the basis of 10,106 responses to an online survey from people in 10 European nations, spanning a diversity of socioeconomic and geographical areas, we examine the public's informedness and concern regarding marine impacts, trust in different information sources, and priorities for policy and funding. Results show that the level of concern regarding marine impacts is closely associated with the level of informedness and that pollution and overfishing are two areas prioritized by the public for policy development. The level of trust varies greatly among different information sources and is highest for academics and scholarly publications but lower for government or industry scientists. Results suggest that the public perceives the immediacy of marine anthropogenic impacts and is highly concerned about ocean pollution, overfishing, and ocean acidification. Eliciting public awareness, concerns, and priorities can enable scientists and funders to understand how the public relates to marine environments, frame impacts, and align managerial and policy priorities with public demand.

Financing marine protected areas through visitor fees: insights from tourists willingness to pay in Chile.

Tourism is a financing mechanism considered by many donor-funded marine conservation initiatives. Here we assess the potential role of visitor entry fees, in generating the necessary revenue to manage a marine protected area (MPA), established through a Global Environmental Facility Grant, in a temperate region of Chile. We assess tourists' willingness to pay (WTP) for an entry fee associated to management and protection of the MPA. Results show 97 % of respondents were willing to pay an entrance fee. WTP predictors included the type of tourist, tourists' sensitivity to crowding, education, and understanding of ecological benefits of the MPA. Nature-based tourists state median WTP values of US$ 4.38 and Sun-sea-sand tourists US$ 3.77. Overall, entry fees could account for 10-13 % of MPA running costs. In Chile, where funding for conservation runs among the weakest in the world, visitor entry fees are no panacea in the short term and other mechanisms, including direct state/government support, should be considered.