RhoMax: Computational Prediction of Rhodopsin Absorption Maxima Using Geometric Deep Learning.

Microbial rhodopsins (MRs) are a diverse and abundant family of photoactive membrane proteins that serve as model systems for biophysical techniques. Optogenetics utilizes genetic engineering to insert specialized proteins into specific neurons or brain regions, allowing for manipulation of their activity through light and enabling the mapping and control of specific brain areas in living organisms. The obstacle of optogenetics lies in the fact that light has a limited ability to penetrate biological tissues, particularly blue light in the visible spectrum. Despite this challenge, most optogenetic systems rely on blue light due to the scarcity of red-shifted opsins. Finding additional red-shifted rhodopsins would represent a major breakthrough in overcoming the challenge of limited light penetration in optogenetics. However, determining the wavelength absorption maxima for rhodopsins based on their protein sequence is a significant hurdle. Current experimental methods are time-consuming, while computational methods lack accuracy. The paper introduces a new computational approach called RhoMax that utilizes structure-based geometric deep learning to predict the absorption wavelength of rhodopsins solely based on their sequences. The method takes advantage of AlphaFold2 for accurate modeling of rhodopsin structures. Once trained on a balanced train set, RhoMax rapidly and precisely predicted the maximum absorption wavelength of more than half of the sequences in our test set with an accuracy of 0.03 eV. By leveraging computational methods for absorption maxima determination, we can drastically reduce the time needed for designing new red-shifted microbial rhodopsins, thereby facilitating advances in the field of optogenetics.

Light-Oxygen-Voltage (LOV)-sensing Domains: Activation Mechanism and Optogenetic Stimulation.

The light-oxygen-voltage (LOV) domains of phototropins emerged as essential constituents of light-sensitive proteins, helping initiate blue light-triggered responses. Moreover, these domains have been identified across all kingdoms of life. LOV domains utilize flavin nucleotides as co-factors and undergo structural rearrangements upon exposure to blue light, which activates an effector domain that executes the final output of the photoreaction. LOV domains are versatile photoreceptors that play critical roles in cellular signaling and environmental adaptation; additionally, they can noninvasively sense and control intracellular processes with high spatiotemporal precision, making them ideal candidates for use in optogenetics, where a light signal is linked to a cellular process through a photoreceptor. The ongoing development of LOV-based optogenetic tools, driven by advances in structural biology, spectroscopy, computational methods, and synthetic biology, has the potential to revolutionize the study of biological systems and enable the development of novel therapeutic strategies.

Disequilibrating azobenzenes by visible-light sensitization under confinement.

Photoisomerization of azobenzenes from their stable E isomer to the metastable Z state is the basis of numerous applications of these molecules. However, this reaction typically requires ultraviolet light, which limits applicability. In this study, we introduce disequilibration by sensitization under confinement (DESC), a supramolecular approach to induce the E-to-Z isomerization by using light of a desired color, including red. DESC relies on a combination of a macrocyclic host and a photosensitizer, which act together to selectively bind and sensitize E-azobenzenes for isomerization. The Z isomer lacks strong affinity for and is expelled from the host, which can then convert additional E-azobenzenes to the Z state. In this way, the host-photosensitizer complex converts photon energy into chemical energy in the form of out-of-equilibrium photostationary states, including ones that cannot be accessed through direct photoexcitation.

Embedding Nonrigid Solutes in an Averaged Environment: A Case Study on Rhodopsins.

Many simulation methods concerning solvated molecules are based on the assumption that the solvated species and the solvent can be characterized by some representative structures of the solute and some embedding potential corresponding to this structure. While the averaging of the solvent configurations to obtain an embedding potential has been studied in great detail, this hinges on a single solute structure representation. This assumption is re-examined and generalized for conformationally flexible solutes and tested on 4 nonrigid systems. In this generalized approach, the solute is characterized by a set of representative structures and the corresponding embedding potentials. The representative structures are identified by means of subdividing the statistical ensemble, which in this work is generated by a constant-temperature molecular dynamics simulation. The embedding potential defined in the Frozen-Density Embedding Theory is used to characterize the average effect of the solvent in each subensemble. The numerical examples concern the vertical excitation energies of protonated retinal Schiff bases in protein environments. It is comprehensively shown that subensemble averaging leads to huge computational savings compared with explicit averaging of the excitation energies in the whole ensemble while introducing only minor errors in the case of the systems examined.

The OpenMolcas Web: A Community-Driven Approach to Advancing Computational Chemistry.

The developments of the open-source OpenMolcas chemistry software environment since spring 2020 are described, with a focus on novel functionalities accessible in the stable branch of the package or via interfaces with other packages. These developments span a wide range of topics in computational chemistry and are presented in thematic sections: electronic structure theory, electronic spectroscopy simulations, analytic gradients and molecular structure optimizations, ab initio molecular dynamics, and other new features. This report offers an overview of the chemical phenomena and processes OpenMolcas can address, while showing that OpenMolcas is an attractive platform for state-of-the-art atomistic computer simulations.

Induction effects on the absorption maxima of photoreceptor proteins.

Multiscale simulations have been established as a powerful tool to calculate and predict excitation energies in complex systems such as photoreceptor proteins. In these simulations the chromophore is typically treated using quantum mechanical (QM) methods while the protein and surrounding environment are described by a classical molecular mechanics (MM) force field. The electrostatic interactions between these regions are often treated using electrostatic embedding where the point charges in the MM region polarize the QM region. A more sophisticated treatment accounts also for the polarization of the MM region. In this work, the effect of such a polarizable embedding on excitation energies was benchmarked and compared to electrostatic embedding. This was done for two different proteins, the lipid membrane-embedded jumping spider rhodopsin and the soluble cyanobacteriochrome Slr1393g3. It was found that the polarizable embedding scheme produces absorption maxima closer to experimental values. The polarizable embedding scheme was also benchmarked against expanded QM regions and found to be in qualitative agreement. Treating individual residues as polarizable recovered between 50% and 71% of the QM improvement in the excitation energies, depending on the system. A detailed analysis of each amino acid residue in the chromophore binding pocket revealed that aromatic residues result in the largest change in excitation energy compared to the electrostatic embedding. Furthermore, the computational efficiency of polarizable embedding allowed it to go beyond the binding pocket and describe a larger portion of the environment, further improving the results.

Rhodopsin-bestrophin fusion proteins from unicellular algae form gigantic pentameric ion channels.

Many organisms sense light using rhodopsins, photoreceptive proteins containing a retinal chromophore. Here we report the discovery, structure and biophysical characterization of bestrhodopsins, a microbial rhodopsin subfamily from marine unicellular algae, in which one rhodopsin domain of eight transmembrane helices or, more often, two such domains in tandem, are C-terminally fused to a bestrophin channel. Cryo-EM analysis of a rhodopsin-rhodopsin-bestrophin fusion revealed that it forms a pentameric megacomplex (~700 kDa) with five rhodopsin pseudodimers surrounding the channel in the center. Bestrhodopsins are metastable and undergo photoconversion between red- and green-absorbing or green- and UVA-absorbing forms in the different variants. The retinal chromophore, in a unique binding pocket, photoisomerizes from all-trans to 11-cis form. Heterologously expressed bestrhodopsin behaves as a light-modulated anion channel.

Deciphering the Spectral Tuning Mechanism in Proteorhodopsin: The Dominant Role of Electrostatics Instead of Chromophore Geometry.

Proteorhodopsin (PR) is a photoactive proton pump found in marine bacteria. There are two phenotypes of PR exhibiting an environmental adaptation to the ocean's depth which tunes their maximum absorption: blue-absorbing proteorhodopsin (BPR) and green-absorbing proteorhodopsin (GPR). This blue/green color-shift is controlled by a glutamine to leucine substitution at position 105 which accounts for a 20 nm shift. Typically, spectral tuning in rhodopsins is rationalized by the external point charge model but the Q105L mutation is charge neutral. To study this tuning mechanism, we employed the hybrid QM/MM method with sampling from molecular dynamics. Our results reveal that the positive partial charge of glutamine near the C14 -C15 bond of retinal shortens the effective conjugation length of the chromophore compared to the leucine residue. The derived mechanism can be applied to explain the color regulation in other retinal proteins and can serve as a guideline for rational design of spectral shifts.

Kinetic Study of Gas-Phase Reactions of Pyruvic Acid with HO2.

Gas-phase reactions between pyruvic acid (PA) and HO2 radicals were examined using ab initio quantum chemistry and transition state theory. The rate coefficients were determined over a temperature range of 200-400 K including tunneling contributions. Six potential reaction pathways were identified. The two hydrogen abstraction reactions yielding the H2O2 product were found to have high barriers. The HO2 radical was also found to have a catalytic effect on the intramolecular hydrogen transfer reactions occurring by three distinct routes. These hydrogen-shift reactions are very interesting mechanistically although they are highly endothermic. The only reaction that contributes significantly to the consumption of PA is a multistep pathway involving a peroxy-radical intermediate, PA + HO2 → CH3COOH + OH + CO2. This exothermic process has potential atmospheric relevance because it produces an OH radical as a product. Atmospheric models currently have difficulty predicting accurate OH concentrations for certain atmospheric conditions, such as environments free of NOx and the nocturnal boundary layer. Reactions of this sort, although not necessary with PA, may account for a portion of this deficit. The present study helps settle the issue of the relative roles of reaction and photolysis in consumption of PA in the troposphere.

Frontiers in Multiscale Modeling of Photoreceptor Proteins.

This perspective article highlights the challenges in the theoretical description of photoreceptor proteins using multiscale modeling, as discussed at the CECAM workshop in Tel Aviv, Israel. The participants have identified grand challenges and discussed the development of new tools to address them. Recent progress in understanding representative proteins such as green fluorescent protein, photoactive yellow protein, phytochrome, and rhodopsin is presented, along with methodological developments.

The Impact of Retinal Configuration on the Protein-Chromophore Interactions in Bistable Jumping Spider Rhodopsin-1.

Bistable rhodopsins have two stable forms that can be interconverted by light. Due to their ability to act as photoswitches, these proteins are considered as ideal candidates for applications such as optogenetics. In this work, we analyze a recently crystalized bistable rhodopsin, namely the jumping spider rhodopsin-1 (JSR1). This rhodopsin exhibits identical absorption maxima for the parent and the photoproduct form, which impedes its broad application. We performed hybrid QM/MM simulations to study three isomers of the retinal chromophore: the 9-cis, 11-cis and all-trans configurations. The main aim was to gain insight into the specific interactions of each isomer and their impact on the absorption maximum in JSR1. The absorption spectra were computed using sampled snapshots from QM/MM molecular dynamics trajectories and compared to their experimental counterparts. The chromophore-protein interactions were analyzed by visualizing the electrostatic potential of the protein and projecting it onto the chromophore. It was found that the distance between a nearby tyrosine (Y126) residue plays a larger role in the predicted absorption maximum than the primary counterion (E194). Geometric differences between the isomers were also noted, including a structural change in the polyene chain of the chromophore, as well as changes in the nearby hydrogen bonding network.

Gas-Phase Reaction Kinetics of Pyruvic Acid with OH Radicals: The Role of Tunneling, Complex Formation, and Conformational Structure.

The gas-phase reaction of pyruvic acid (PA) with the OH radical is studied theoretically using accurate quantum chemistry and transition state theory. Two chemically distinct H-atom abstraction reactions and two distinct OH addition reactions have been identified. The rate coefficients for these four processes were calculated. Quantum tunneling was included in each rate using the small curvature tunneling method. The influence of the conformational structure of PA was found to be particularly intriguing. While the trans-cis structure was found to dominantly react by H-atom abstraction from the methyl site, the trans-trans conformer was found to react mostly through H-atom abstraction from the acid site. A general formalism was developed to model the kinetics of the reactions that involve multiple conformers, interconverting prereactive complexes, and multiple transition states. Comparison of the results obtained with available experimental rate observations reveals agreement with the trans-trans conformer of PA but disagreement with the results obtained for a full statistical mixture of reagents. The role of these reactions in the atmospheric processing of PA is discussed.

Double Hydrogen-Atom Exchange Reactions of HX (X = F, Cl, Br, I) with HO2.

A novel double hydrogen atom exchange process, HX + H'O2 → H'X + HO2 for the halogen series X = F, Cl, Br, and I, is identified using theoretical methods. These concerted reactions are mediated through a stabilized five-membered planar ring transition state structure. The transition state barrier for the double exchange process is found to be significantly lower than that for the abstraction reaction of a single hydrogen atom. Density functional theory employing the M11 exchange functional is used to compute parameters of the potential energy surface and the rate coefficients are obtained using transition state theory with small curvature tunneling. For low temperatures, the exchange reaction proceeds at a rate several orders of magnitude faster than the abstraction channel, which is also calculated. The exchange process may be observed using isotope scrambling reactions; such reactions may contribute to observed isotope abundances in the atmosphere. The rate coefficients for the isotopically labeled reactions are computed. It is found that the trends in reactivity within the series of halogen reactions can be quantitatively understood using the degree of electron delocalization at the transition state. The barriers are found to fall as the electronegativity of the halogen atom decreases.

Reaction Kinetics of HBr with HO2: A New Channel for Isotope Scrambling Reactions.

The gas phase reaction kinetics of HBr with the HO2 radical are investigated over the temperature range of T = 200-1500 K using a theoretical approach based on transition state theory. The parameters for the potential energy surface are computed using density functional theory with the M11 exchange functional. The rate coefficient for the HBr + HO2 → Br + H2O2 abstraction channel is found to be somewhat larger than previous estimates at low temperatures due to quantum tunneling. The present study reveals the existence of a novel exchange pathway, HBr + H'O2 → H'Br + HO2, which exhibits a much lower reaction barrier than does the abstraction route. The transition state for this process is a symmetrical planar five-membered-ring-shaped structure. At low temperatures, this concerted double hydrogen transfer reaction is several orders of magnitude faster than the abstraction channel. The exchange process may be observed using isotope scrambling reactions; such reactions may contribute to observed isotope abundances in the atmosphere. The rate coefficients for the isotopically labeled reactions are computed.

Charge transfer and polarization for chloride ions bound in ClC transport proteins: natural bond orbital and energy decomposition analyses.

ClC transport proteins show a distinct "broken-helix" architecture, in which certain α-helices are oriented with their N-terminal ends pointed toward the binding sites where the chloride ions are held extensively by the backbone amide nitrogen atoms from the helices. To understand the effectiveness of such binding structures, we carried out natural bond orbital analysis and energy decomposition analysis employing truncated active-site model systems for the bound chloride ions along the translocation pore of the EcClC proteins. Our results indicated that the chloride ions are stabilized in such a binding environment by electrostatic, polarization, and charge-transfer interactions with the backbone and a few side chains. Up to ~25% of the formal charges of the chloride ions were found smeared out to the surroundings primarily via charge transfer from the chloride's lone pair n(Cl) orbitals to the protein's antibonding σ*(N-H) or σ*(O-H) orbitals; those σ* orbitals are localized at the polar N-H and O-H bonds in the chloride's first solvation shells formed by the backbone amide groups and the side chains of residues Ser107, Arg147, Glu148, and Tyr445. Polarizations by the chloride ions were dominated by the redistribution of charge densities among the π orbitals and lone pair orbitals of the protein atoms, in particular the atoms of the backbone peptide links and of the side chains of Arg147, Glu148, and Tyr445. The substantial amounts of electron density involved in charge transfer and in polarization were consistent with the large energetic contributions by the two processes revealed by the energy decomposition analysis. The significant polarization and charge-transfer effects may have impacts on the mechanisms and dynamics of the chloride transport by the ClC proteins.