E-Cigarette Aerosols Promote Oral S. aureus Colonization by Delaying an Immune Response and Bacterial Clearing.

E-cigarette (e-cig) vapor has been shown to play a pathological role in oral health and alter the oral microbiota, providing growth advantages for opportunistic pathogens. Enrichment of Staphylococcus aureus, a commensal resident in the oral cavity, correlates with the progression of periodontal disease, suggesting a role as an opportunistic pathogen. Environmental conditions, such as cigarette smoke, are known to increase S. aureus virulence, yet the role of S. aureus in periodontitis and oral preneoplasia is unknown. We exposed oral epithelial cells to e-cig aerosols and showed a dose-dependent cell viability reduction, regardless of nicotine content, in a possible attempt to repair DNA damage, as measured by pH2AX. S. aureus attachment to oral epithelial cells and bacterial biofilm formation were enhanced upon e-cig exposure, indicating an increased capacity for oral colonization. Mechanistically, e-cig aerosol exposure resulted in an immunosuppression, as determined by a reduction in IL8, IL6, and IL1ß secretion by oral epithelial cells during co-culture with S. aureus. Consistent with this, e-cig vape reduced the oral epithelial cell clearance of S. aureus. Furthermore, we observed an increased expression of the inflammatory regulator COX2. This work suggests that e-cigs promote S. aureus colonization and modulate the oral inflammatory response, possibly promoting oral periodontitis and preneoplasia.

Identification of Nasal Gammaproteobacteria with Potent Activity against Staphylococcus aureus: Novel Insights into the "Noncarrier" State.

Staphylococcus aureus nasal carriage provides the bacterial reservoir for opportunistic infection. In comparing the nasal microbiomes of culture-defined persistent S. aureus carriers versus noncarriers, we detected S. aureus DNA in all noses, including those with an established history of S. aureus negativity based on culture. Colonization with Gammaproteobacteria, including Klebsiella aerogenes, Citrobacter koseri, Moraxella lincolnii, and select Acinetobacter spp., was associated with S. aureus noncarriage. We next developed physiological competition assays for testing anti-S. aureus activity of isolated nasal species, utilizing medium modeling the nutrient-limited fluid of the nasal mucosa, polarized primary nasal epithelia, and nasal secretions. K. aerogenes from the nose of an S. aureus noncarrier demonstrated >99% inhibition of S. aureus recovery in all assays, even when S. aureus was coincubated in 9-fold excess. Secreted S. aureus inhibitory proteins from K. aerogenes and M. lincolnii were heat-stable and <30 kDa, fitting the profile of antimicrobial peptides. C. koseri, Acinetobacter haemolyticus, Acinetobacter junii, and Acinetobacter schindleri inhibited S. aureus recovery on nasal epithelia in a contact-dependent manner, while several other species either had no effect or promoted S. aureus growth. Collectively, this project is one of the first to identify resident nasal microbial species that impede S. aureus survival, and it implies that detectable nasal S. aureus results from shifts in microbial community composition.IMPORTANCE Nasal carriage of Staphylococcus aureus is a risk factor for infection, but it is not yet understood why some individuals carry nasal S. aureus persistently, intermittently, or seemingly not at all when tested via culture methods. This study compared the nasal microbiomes of established S. aureus carriers and noncarriers, identified species associated with noncarriage, and tested them for anti-S. aureus activity using assays developed to model the nutrient-limited nasal mucosa. We determined that all nostril swabs contain S. aureus DNA, even swabs from hosts considered to be long-term noncarriers. Select members of the Gammaproteobacteria class were more prevalent in noncarrier than carrier nostrils and demonstrated potent activity against multiple strains of S. aureus The results described here provide a better understanding of how the nasal microbiome controls S. aureus growth and viability and may be useful in the design of improved S. aureus decolonization strategies.

Matrix Metalloproteinases Expressed in Response to Bacterial Vaginosis Disrupt the Endocervical Epithelium, Increasing Transmigration of HIV.

Bacterial vaginosis (BV), a disorder of the female reproductive tract (FRT) in which a healthy Lactobacillus-dominant microflora is replaced by BV-associated bacteria (BVAB), can significantly increase the incidence of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) acquisition. Discerning the effect of BV on the mucosal epithelium of the FRT may yield novel preventatives and therapeutics for HIV infection. Here, we investigated barrier dysfunction of the endocervix by host-derived factors, secreted in response to BV, as a potential cause of HIV infection. Using a polarized endocervical cell culture system, we determined that conditioned media (CM) from endocervical cells cocultured with BVAB (endocervical+BVAB CM), as well as cervicovaginal fluid (CVF) from women with BV, disrupted epithelial polarization. We assessed host matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) as the BV-associated secreted factors which disrupt the endocervical epithelium. MMPs were overexpressed in endocervical+BVAB CM and CVF from women with BV and were capable of disrupting endocervical epithelial polarization. When we cocultured polarized endocervical cells with HIV-1-infected lymphocyte-derived cells, we discovered endocervical+BVAB CM and MMPs significantly increased the transmigration of virus through the epithelium, and treatment with an MMP inhibitor decreased these effects. When we examined the effect of CVF on HIV-1 transmigration through endocervical epithelium, we demonstrated that CVF samples with greater concentrations of BV-associated MMPs increased viral transmigration. Our results suggest MMPs increase HIV-1 infection by disrupting the endocervical epithelium, permitting transmigration of virus through the epithelium to infect underlying target cells.

Avirulins, a Novel Class of HIV-1 Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors Effective in the Female Reproductive Tract Mucosa.

While extensive research efforts have decreased human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) transmissions and mortalities, new challenges have arisen in the fight to eradicate HIV. Drug resistance to antiretroviral therapy threatens infected individuals, while the prevalence of heterosexual transmission creates an urgent need for therapies effective in the female reproductive tract (FRT) mucosa. We screened a library of 2095 small molecule compounds comprising a unique chemical space, purchased from Asinex Corporation, for antiviral activity against human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) strain BaL and identified several molecular representatives of a unique class of HIV-1 inhibitors, which we termed "Avirulins." We determined that Avirulins were active against clinical isolates of HIV-1 from genetically variant subtypes, several of which have reduced sensitivity to other antivirals. Avirulins displayed specific dose-dependent inhibition of the HIV-1 drug target, reverse transcriptase (RT). Avirulins were effective against several nucleoside RT-inhibitor resistant strains of HIV-1, as well as one nonnucleoside RT-inhibitor resistant strain containing a 106A mutation, suggesting a noncompetitive mechanism of action. Drugs, which are damaging to the FRT, can increase the risk of HIV-1 transmission. We therefore explored the cytotoxicity of Avirulins against epithelial cells derived from the FRT and found no significant toxicity, even at the highest concentrations tested. Importantly, Avirulin antiviral activity was not diminished in human cervico-vaginal fluid, suggesting retained potency in the milieu of the FRT. Based on these promising results, Avirulins should be valuable chemical scaffolds for development into next-generation treatments and preventatives that target HIV-1.

Evaluation of the Pig-Tailed Macaque (Macaca nemestrina) as a Model of Human Staphylococcus aureus Nasal Carriage.

Staphylococcus aureus nasal carriage is a common condition affecting both healthy and immunocompromised populations and provides a reservoir for dissemination of potentially infectious strains by casual contact. The factors regulating the onset and duration of nasal S. aureus colonization are mostly unknown, and a human-relevant animal model is needed. Here, we screened 17 pig-tailed macaques (Macaca nemestrina) for S. aureus carriage, and 14 of 17 animals tested positive in the nose at one or both screening sessions (8 weeks apart), while the other 3 animals were negative in the nose but positive in the pharynx at least once. As in humans, S. aureus colonization was densest in the nose, and treatment of the nostrils with mupirocin ointment effectively cleared the nostrils and 6 extranasal body sites. Experimental nasal S. aureus colonization was established with 104 CFU/nostril, and both autologous and nonautologous strains survived over 40 days without any apparent adverse effects. A human nasal S. aureus isolate (strain D579, sequence type 398) was carried in 4 of 6 animals for over 3 weeks. Nostrils that did eradicate experimentally applied S. aureus exhibited neutrophilic innate immunity marked by elevated nasal interleukin-1ß (IL-1ß), IL-8, and monocyte chemotactic protein 1 levels and a 10-fold decreased IL-1 receptor antagonist/IL-1ß ratio within 7 days postinoculation, analogous to the human condition. Taken together, pig-tailed macaques represent a physiological model of human S. aureus nasal carriage that may be utilized for testing natural colonization and decolonization mechanisms as well as novel classes of anti-S. aureus therapeutics.

Cessation from Smoking Improves Innate Host Defense and Clearance of Experimentally Inoculated Nasal Staphylococcus aureus.

Staphylococcus aureus nasal carriage is transient in most humans and usually benign, but dissemination of S. aureus to extranasal sites causes the majority of clinical infections, and S. aureus is a major cause of serious infections in the United States. A better understanding of innate nasal decolonization mechanisms is urgently needed, as are relevant models for studying S. aureus clearance. Here, we screened a population of healthy smokers for nasal S. aureus carriage and compared the participants' abilities to clear experimentally applied nasal S. aureus before and after completion of a smoking cessation program. We determined that cigarette smoking increases the mean nasal S. aureus load (2.6 × 104 CFU/swab) compared to the load observed in healthy nonsmokers (1.7 × 103 CFU/swab) and might increase the rate of S. aureus nasal carriage in otherwise-healthy adults: 22 of 99 smokers carried S. aureus at the screening visit, while only 4 of 30 nonsmokers screened positive during the same time period. Only 6 of 19 experimental inoculation studies in active smokers resulted in S. aureus clearance within the month of follow-up, while in the cessation group, 6 of 9 subjects cleared nasal S. aureus and carriage duration averaged 21 ± 4 days. Smoking cessation associated with enhanced expression of S. aureus-associated interleukin-1ß (IL-1ß) and granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF) in nasal fluids. Participants who failed to clear S. aureus exhibited a higher nasal S. aureus load and elevated nasal interleukin-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1RA) expression at the preexperiment study visits. We conclude that smokers exhibit higher S. aureus loads than nonsmokers and that innate immune pathways, including G-CSF expression and signaling through the IL-1 axis, are important mediators of nasal S. aureus clearance.

HIV-Enhancing and HIV-Inhibiting Properties of Cationic Peptides and Proteins.

Cationic antimicrobial peptides and proteins have historically been ascribed roles in innate immunity that infer killing of microbial and viral pathogens and protection of the host. In the context of sexually transmitted HIV-1, we take an unconventional approach that questions this paradigm. It is becoming increasingly apparent that many of the cationic polypeptides present in the human genital or anorectal mucosa, or human semen, are capable of enhancing HIV-1 infection, often in addition to other reported roles as viral inhibitors. We explore how the in vivo environment may select for or against the HIV-enhancing aspects of these cationic polypeptides by focusing on biological relevance. We stress that the distinction between enhancing and inhibiting HIV-1 infection is not mutually exclusive to specific classes of cationic polypeptides. Understanding how virally enhancing peptides and proteins act to promote sexual transmission of HIV-1 would be important for the design of topical microbicides, mucosal vaccines, and other preventative measures.

Synthesis and bioevaluation of substituted chalcones, coumaranones and other flavonoids as anti-HIV agents.

A series of chalcone, flavone, coumaranone and other flavonoid compounds were screened for their anti HIV-1 activity in two cell culture models using TZM-bl and PM1 cells. Within the systems evaluated, the most promising compounds contained either an α- or ß-hydroxy-carbonyl motif within their structure (e.g., 8 and 9). Efficacious substituents were identified and used to design new HIV inhibitors with increased potency and lower cytotoxicity. Of the scaffolds evaluated, specific chalcones were found to provide the best balance between anti-HIV potency and low host cell toxicity. Chalcone 8l was shown to inhibit different clinical isolates of HIV in a dose-dependent manner (e.g., IC50 typically⩽5µM). Inhibition of HIV infection experiments using TZM-bl cells demonstrated that chalcone 8l and flavonol 9c had IC50 values of 4.7µM and 10.4µM, respectively. These insights were used to design new chalcones 8o and 8p. Rewardingly, chalcones 8o and 8p (at 10µM) each gave >92% inhibition of viral propagation without impacting PM1 host cell viability. Inhibition of viral propagation significantly increased (60-90%) when PM1 cells were pre-incubated with chalcone 8o, but not with the related flavonol 9c. These results suggested that chalcone 8o may be of value as both a HIV prophylactic and therapy. In summary, O-benzyl-substituted chalcones were identified as promising anti-HIV agents for future investigation.

Non-Cationic Proteins Are Associated with HIV Neutralizing Activity in Genital Secretions of Female Sex Workers.

OBJECTIVE: Cationic proteins found in cervicovaginal secretions (CVS) are known to contribute to the early antiviral immune response against HIV-infection in vitro. We here aimed to define additional antiviral factors that are over-expressed in CVS from female sex workers at high risk of infection. METHODS: CVS were collected from Kenyan HIV-seronegative (n = 34) and HIV-seropositive (n = 12) female sex workers, and were compared with those from HIV-seronegative low-risk women (n = 12). The highly exposed seronegative (HESN) sex workers were further divided into those with less (n = 22) or more (n = 12) than three years of documented sex work. Cationic protein-depleted CVS were assessed for HIV-neutralizing activity by a PBMC-based HIV-neutralizing assay, and then characterized by proteomics. RESULTS: HIV neutralizing activity was detected in all unprocessed CVS, however only CVS from the female sex worker groups maintained its HIV neutralizing activity after cationic protein-depletion. Differentially abundant proteins were identified in the cationic protein-depleted secretions including 26, 42, and 11 in the HESN>3 yr, HESN<3 yr, and HIV-positive groups, respectively. Gene ontology placed these proteins into functional categories including proteolysis, oxidation-reduction, and epidermal development. The proteins identified in this study include proteins previously associated with the HESN phenotype in other cohorts as well as novel proteins not yet associated with anti-HIV activities. CONCLUSION: While cationic proteins appear to contribute to the majority of the intrinsic HIV neutralizing activity in the CVS of low-risk women, a broader range of non-cationic proteins were associated with HIV neutralizing activity in HESN and HIV-positive female sex workers. These results indicate that novel protein factors found in CVS of women with high-risk sexual practices may have inherent antiviral activity, or are involved in other aspects of anti-HIV host defense, and warrant further exploration into their mode of action.

Morphology-Dependent HIV-Enhancing Effect of Semen-Derived Enhancer of Viral Infection.

PAP248-286 is a 39-residue fragment (residues 248 to 286) derived from protease cleavage of prostatic acidic phosphatase in semen. The amyloid fibrils formed in vitro by PAP248-286 can dramatically enhance human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. To our knowledge, we present the first report that the HIV-enhancing potency of fibrils formed by PAP248-286 is morphology dependent. We identified pleomorphic fibrils by transmission electron microscopy in two buffer conditions. Our solid-state NMR data showed that these fibrils consist of molecules in distinct conformations. In agreement with NMR, fluorescence measurements confirmed that they are assembled along different pathways, with distinct molecular structures. Furthermore, our cell-based infectivity tests detected distinct HIV-enhancing potencies for fibrils in distinct morphologies. In addition, our transmission electron microscopy and NMR results showed that semen-derived enhancer of viral infection fibrils formed in sodium bicarbonate buffer remain stable over time, but semen-derived enhancer of viral infection fibrils formed in phosphate buffered saline keep evolving after the initial 7 days incubation period. Given time, most of the assemblies in phosphate buffered saline will turn into elongated thin fibrils. They have similar secondary structure but different packing than thin fibrils formed initially after 7 days incubation.

HIV-Enhancing Factors Are Secreted by Reproductive Epithelia upon Inoculation with Bacterial Vaginosis-Associated Bacteria.

Bacterial vaginosis is a common reproductive infection in which commensal vaginal lactobacilli are displaced by a mixed population of pathogenic bacteria. Bacterial vaginosis increases susceptibility to HIV, and it has been suggested that host innate immune responses to pathogenic bacteria contribute to enhanced infection, yet the cellular mechanisms mediating the increased HIV susceptibility remain uncharacterized. We evaluated the HIV-enhancing effects of bacterial vaginosis by inoculating endocervical epithelia with Atopobium vaginae, a bacterial vaginosis-associated bacteria, and assaying secreted factors for HIV-enhancing activity. When epithelia and A. vaginae were cocultured, we observed increased HIV-enhancing activity mediated by secreted low molecular weight factors. From this complex mixture we identified several upregulated host proteins, which functioned in combination to enhance HIV infection. These studies suggest that the host immune response to bacterial vaginosis-associated bacteria results in the release of HIV-enhancing factors. The combined activity of bacterial vaginosis-induced proteins likely mediates HIV enhancement.

The HIV-1 gp41 ectodomain is cleaved by matriptase to produce a chemotactic peptide that acts through FPR2.

Several aspects of HIV-1 virulence and pathogenesis are mediated by the envelope protein gp41. Additionally, peptides derived from the gp41 ectodomain have been shown to induce chemotaxis in monocytes and neutrophils. Whereas this chemotactic activity has been reported, it is not known how these peptides could be produced under biological conditions. The heptad repeat 1 (HR1) region of gp41 is exposed to the extracellular environment and could therefore be susceptible to proteolytic processing into smaller peptides. Matriptase is a serine protease expressed at the surface of most epithelia, including the prostate and mucosal surfaces. Here, we present evidence that matriptase efficiently cleaves the HR1 portion of gp41 into a 22-residue chemotactic peptide MAT-1, the sequence of which is highly conserved across HIV-1 clades. We found that MAT-1 induced migration of primary neutrophils and monocytes, the latter of which act as a cellular reservoir of HIV during early stage infection. We then used formyl peptide receptor 1 (FPR1) and FPR2 inhibitors, along with HEK 293 cells, to demonstrate that MAT-1 can induce chemotaxis specifically using FPR2, a receptor found on the surface of monocytes, macrophages and neutrophils. These findings are the first to identify a proteolytic cleavage product of gp41 with chemotactic activity and highlight a potential role for matriptase in HIV-1 transmission and infection at epithelial surfaces and within tissue reservoirs of HIV-1.

A compensatory mutation provides resistance to disparate HIV fusion inhibitor peptides and enhances membrane fusion.

Fusion inhibitors are a class of antiretroviral drugs used to prevent entry of HIV into host cells. Many of the fusion inhibitors being developed, including the drug enfuvirtide, are peptides designed to competitively inhibit the viral fusion protein gp41. With the emergence of drug resistance, there is an increased need for effective and unique alternatives within this class of antivirals. One such alternative is a class of cyclic, cationic, antimicrobial peptides known as θ-defensins, which are produced by many non-human primates and exhibit broad-spectrum antiviral and antibacterial activity. Currently, the θ-defensin analog RC-101 is being developed as a microbicide due to its specific antiviral activity, lack of toxicity to cells and tissues, and safety in animals. Understanding potential RC-101 resistance, and how resistance to other fusion inhibitors affects RC-101 susceptibility, is critical for future development. In previous studies, we identified a mutant, R5-tropic virus that had evolved partial resistance to RC-101 during in vitro selection. Here, we report that a secondary mutation in gp41 was found to restore replicative fitness, membrane fusion, and the rate of viral entry, which were compromised by an initial mutation providing partial RC-101 resistance. Interestingly, we show that RC-101 is effective against two enfuvirtide-resistant mutants, demonstrating the clinical importance of RC-101 as a unique fusion inhibitor. These findings both expand our understanding of HIV drug-resistance to diverse peptide fusion inhibitors and emphasize the significance of compensatory gp41 mutations.

The anti-HIV microbicide candidate RC-101 inhibits pathogenic vaginal bacteria without harming endogenous flora or mucosa.

PROBLEM: Vaginal microbicides represent a promising approach for preventing heterosexual HIV transmission. However, preclinical evaluation should be conducted to ensure that microbicides will be safe for human cells and healthy microflora of the female reproductive tract. One microbicide candidate, RC-101, has been effective and well tolerated in preliminary cell culture and macaque models. However, the effect of RC-101 on primary vaginal tissues and resident vaginal microflora requires further evaluation. METHOD OF STUDY: We treated primary vaginal tissues and vaginal bacteria, both pathogenic and commensal, with RC-101 to investigate effects of this microbicide. RESULTS: RC-101 was well tolerated by host tissues, and also by commensal vaginal bacteria. Simultaneously, pathogenic vaginal bacteria, which are known to increase susceptibility to HIV acquisition, were inhibited by RC-101. CONCLUSIONS: By establishing vaginal microflora, the specific antibacterial activity of RC-101 may provide a dual mechanism of HIV protection. These findings support advancement of RC-101 to clinical trials.

Identification and characterization of bacterial vaginosis-associated pathogens using a comprehensive cervical-vaginal epithelial coculture assay.

Bacterial vaginosis (BV) is the most commonly treated female reproductive tract affliction, characterized by the displacement of healthy lactobacilli by an overgrowth of pathogenic bacteria. BV can contribute to pathogenic inflammation, preterm birth, and susceptibility to sexually transmitted infections. As the bacteria responsible for BV pathogenicity and their interactions with host immunity are not understood, we sought to evaluate the effects of BV-associated bacteria on reproductive epithelia. Here we have characterized the interaction between BV-associated bacteria and the female reproductive tract by measuring cytokine and defensin induction in three types of FRT epithelial cells following bacterial inoculation. Four BV-associated bacteria were evaluated alongside six lactobacilli for a comparative assessment. While responses differed between epithelial cell types, our model showed good agreement with clinical BV trends. We observed a distinct cytokine and human ß-defensin 2 response to BV-associated bacteria, especially Atopobium vaginae, compared to most lactobacilli. One lactobacillus species, Lactobacillus vaginalis, induced an immune response similar to that elicited by BV-associated bacteria, stimulating significantly higher levels of cytokines and human ß-defensin 2 than other lactobacilli. These data provide an important prioritization of BV-associated bacteria and support further characterization of reproductive bacteria and their interactions with host epithelia. Additionally, they demonstrate the distinct immune response potentials of epithelial cells from different locations along the female reproductive tract.

HIV-neutralizing activity of cationic polypeptides in cervicovaginal secretions of women in HIV-serodiscordant relationships.

BACKGROUND: HIV exposed seronegative (HESN) women represent the population most in need of a prophylactic antiviral strategy. Mucosal cationic polypeptides can potentially be regulated for this purpose and we here aimed to determine their endogenous expression and HIV neutralizing activity in genital secretions of women at risk of HIV infection. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Cervicovaginal secretions (CVS) of Kenyan women in HIV-serodiscordant relationships (HESN, n = 164; HIV seropositive, n = 60) and low-risk controls (n = 72) were assessed for the cationic polypeptides HNP1-3, LL-37 and SLPI by ELISA and for HIV neutralizing activity by a PBMC-based assay using an HIV primary isolate. Median levels of HNP1-3 and LL-37 in CVS were similar across study groups. Neither HSV-2 serostatus, nor presence of bacterial vaginosis, correlated with levels of HNP1-3 or LL-37 in the HESN women. However, an association with their partner's viral load was observed. High viral load (>10,000 HIV RNA copies/ml plasma) correlated with higher levels of HNP1-3 and LL-37 (p = 0.04 and 0.03, respectively). SLPI was most abundant in the low-risk group and did not correlate with male partner's viral load in the HESN women. HIV neutralizing activity was found in CVS of all study groups. In experimental studies, selective depletion of cationic polypeptides from CVS rendered the remaining CVS fraction non-neutralizing, whereas the cationic polypeptide fraction retained the activity. Furthermore, recombinant HNP1-3 and LL-37 could induce neutralizing activity when added to CVS lacking intrinsic activity. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: These findings show that CVS from HESN, low-risk, and HIV seropositive women contain HIV neutralizing activity. Although several innate immune proteins, including HNP1-3 and LL-37, contribute to this activity these molecules can also have inflammatory properties. This balance is influenced by hormonal and environmental factors and in the present HIV serodiscordant couple cohort study we show that a partner's viral load is associated with levels of such molecules.

Characterization of the retrocyclin analogue RC-101 as a preventative of Staphylococcus aureus nasal colonization.

Nasal colonization of Staphylococcus aureus is a risk factor for pathogenic autoinfection, particularly in postoperative patients and the immunocompromised. As such, standardized preoperative nasal decolonization of S. aureus has become a major consideration for the prevention of nosocomial infection. However, only a few treatment options for nasal decolonization are currently available, with resistance to these approaches already a concern. Here we have identified the macrocyclic -defensin analogue RC-101 as a promising anti-S. aureus agent for nasal decolonization. RC-101 exhibits bactericidal effects against S. aureus with the use of in vitro epithelium-free systems, while also preventing the pathogen's proliferation and attachment in an ex vivo human nasal epithelial cell adhesion model and an organotypic model of human airway epithelia. Peptide concentrations as low as 2.5 µM elicited significant reductions in S. aureus growth in epithelium-free systems, with 10 µM concentrations being completely bactericidal for all strains tested, including USA300. In ex vivo nasal colonization models, RC-101 significantly reduced adherence, survival, and proliferation of S. aureus on human nasal epithelia. Reductions in S. aureus viability were evident in these assays, with as little as 1 µg of peptide per tissue, while 10 µg of RC-101 completely prevented adhesion of all strains tested. Furthermore, RC-101 did not exhibit cellular toxicity to human nasal epithelia at concentrations up to 200 µM, nor did it induce a proinflammatory response in these cells. Collectively, the findings of this study identify RC-101 as a potential preventative of S. aureus nasal colonization.

Retrocyclins and their activity against HIV-1.

Primate theta-defensins are physically distinguished as the only known fully-cyclic peptides of animal origin. Humans do not produce theta-defensin peptides due to a premature stop codon present in the signal sequence of all six theta-defensin pseudogenes. Instead, since the putative coding regions of human theta-defensin pseudogenes have remained remarkably intact, their corresponding peptides, called "retrocyclins", have been recreated using solid-phase synthetic approaches. Retrocyclins exhibit an exceptional therapeutic index both as inhibitors of HIV-1 entry and as bactericidal agents, which makes retrocyclins promising candidates for further development as topical microbicides to prevent sexually transmitted diseases. This review presents the evolution, antiretroviral mechanism of action, and potential clinical applications of retrocyclins to prevent sexual transmission of HIV-1.

Exoproteome of Staphylococcus aureus reveals putative determinants of nasal carriage.

Due to the increasing prevalence of nosocomial and community-acquired antibiotic resistant Staphylococcus aureus (SA), understanding the determinants of SA nasal carriage has become a major imperative. Previous research has revealed many host and bacterial factors that contribute to SA nasal carriage. To assess bacterial factors that facilitate nasal carriage, we compared the exoproteome of a nasal carrier strain of SA to a genetically similar noncarrier strain. Additionally, the carrier strain biofilm exoproteome was also compared against its planktonic counterpart. Using high throughput proteomics, it was observed that the carrier strain of SA secretes a greater number of proteins that may promote successful colonization of the human nose, including cell attachment and immunoevasive proteins, than the noncarrier strain. Similarly, SA carrier strain biofilm exoproteome contains a greater number of immunoevasive proteins than its planktonic counterpart. Analysis of the most abundant immunoevasive proteins revealed that Staphylococcal protein A was present at significantly higher levels in carrier than in noncarrier strains of SA, suggesting an association with nasal carriage. While further analyses of specific differences between carrier and noncarrier strains of SA are required, many of the differentially expressed proteins identified can be considered to be putative determinants of nasal carriage.