Understanding ecotoxicological drivers and responses of freshwater green algae, Raphidocelis subcapitata, to cationic polyquaternium polymers.

Cationic polymer (CP) ecotoxicity is important to understand and investigate as they are widely used in industrial and consumer applications and have shown toxic effects in some aquatic organisms. CPs are identified as "polymers of concern" and are to be prioritized in upcoming regulatory reviews, (e.g., REACH). Algae have generally been found to be the most sensitive trophic level to CP. This study aimed at elucidating the magnitude of cationic polyquaternium toxicity towards algae and to understand key toxicological drivers. A suite of polyquaterniums with varying charge density (charged nitrogen moieties) and molecular weight were selected. Highly charged polyquaternium-6 and -16 were toxic towards the freshwater green microalgae Raphidocelis subcapitata with ErC50-values ranging between 0.12 and 0.41 mg/L. Lower charge density polyquaternium-10 materials had much lower toxicity with ErC50 > 200 mg/L, suggesting that charge density is an important driver of algal toxicity. These levels of toxicity were in line with historic CP data in literature. Algal agglomeration was observed in all tests but was not linked with impacts on algal growth rate. However, agglomeration can pose challenges in the technical conduct of tests and can impair interpretation of results. The toxicity mitigation potential of humic acid was also explored. The addition of 2-20 mg/L humic acid completely mitigated PQ6 and PQ16 toxicity at concentrations higher than clean water ErC50-values. CP toxicity mitigation has also been observed in fish and invertebrate tests, suggesting that CP mitigation should be accounted for in all trophic levels within an environmental safety framework.

Environmental hazard of cationic polymers relevant in personal and consumer care products: A critical review.

Historically, polymers have been excluded from registration and evaluation under the Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH) program, the European chemical management program. Recently, interest has increased to include polymers. A tiered registration system has been envisioned and would begin with classes of polymers of greater interest based on certain properties. Cationic polymers are one such class. There is a pressing need to understand the quality and limitations of historical cationic polymer studies and to identify key sources of uncertainty in environmental hazard assessments so we can move toward scientifically robust analyses. To that end, we performed a critical review of the existing cationic polymer environmental effects literature to evaluate polymer characterization and test methodologies to understand how these parameters may affect test interpretation. The relationship between physicochemical parameters, acute and chronic toxicity, and relative trophic level sensitivity were explored. To advance our understanding of the environmental hazard and subsequent risk characterization of cationic polymers, there is a clear need for a consistent testing approach as many polymers are characterized as difficult-to-test substances. Experimental parameters such as dissolved organic carbon and solution renewal approaches can alter cationic polymer bioavailability and toxicity. It is recommended that OECD TG 23 "Aqueous-Phase Aquatic Toxicity Testing of Difficult Test Substances" testing considerations be applied when conducting environmental toxicity assays with cationic polymers. Integr Environ Assess Manag 2023;19:312-325. © 2021 SETAC.

Understanding Ecotoxicological Responses of Fish Embryos and Gill Cells to Cationic Polymers.

Cationic polymers are considered by the scientific and regulatory communities as a group of greater interest amongst the polymers in commerce. As a category, relatively little hazard information is available in the public literature. Very few examples exist of published, high-quality polymer characterization and quantification of exposure. In the present study we describe a series of fish embryo toxicity (FET) and fish gill cytotoxicity assays used to establish a baseline understanding of several representative polyquaternium categories (PQ-6, PQ-10, PQ-16) in animal alternative models, accompanied by high-quality analytical characterization. Materials were chosen to encompass a range of molecular weights and charge densities to determine the influence of test material characteristics on toxicity. Both chorionated and dechorionated FET assays were generally similar to published acute fish toxicity data. Toxicity was correlated with cationic polymer charge density, and not with molecular weight, and was a combination of physical effects and likely toxicity at the site of action. Toxicity could be ameliorated by humic acid in a dose-dependent manner. Fish gill cytotoxicity results were orders of magnitude less sensitive than FET test responses. Environ Toxicol Chem 2022;41:2259-2272. © 2022 SETAC.

Daphnia magna and Ceriodaphnia dubia Have Similar Sensitivity in Standard Acute and Chronic Toxicity Tests.

The cladocerans Daphnia magna and Ceriodaphnia dubia have been used for decades to assess the hazards of chemicals and effluents, but toxicity data for these species have traditionally been treated separately. Numerous standard acute and chronic test guidelines have been developed for both species. In the present study, data were compiled and curated for acute survival (48 h) and growth and reproduction tests with D. magna (21 days chronic) and C. dubia (7 days chronic) toxicity assays. Orthogonal regressions were developed to statistically compare the acute and chronic sensitivity of D. magna and C. dubia across a diversity of chemicals and modes of action. Acute orthogonal regressions between D. magna and D. pulex, a widely accepted surrogate species, were used to set a data-driven benchmark for what would constitute a suitable D. magna surrogate. The results indicate that there is insufficient evidence to suggest a difference in acute or chronic sensitivity of D. magna and C. dubia in standard toxicity tests. Further, the variability in the acute D. magna and C. dubia regressions were of the same magnitude as that in D. magna and D. pulex regressions. Slope and y-intercept values were also comparable. The absence of significant differences in toxicity values suggests similar species sensitivity in standard tests across a range of chemical classes and modes of action. Environ Toxicol Chem 2022;41:134-147. © 2021 SETAC.

Ecological Thresholds of Toxicological Concern: A Review.

The ecological threshold of toxicological concern (ecoTTC) is analogous to traditional human health-based TTCs but with derivation and application to ecological species. An ecoTTC is computed from the probability distribution of predicted no effect concentrations (PNECs) derived from either chronic or extrapolated acute toxicity data for toxicologically or chemically similar groups of chemicals. There has been increasing interest in using ecoTTCs in screening level environmental risk assessments and a computational platform has been developed for derivation with aquatic species toxicity data (https://envirotoxdatabase.org/). Current research and development areas include assessing mode of action-based chemical groupings, conservatism in estimated PNECs and ecoTTCs compared to existing regulatory values, and the influence of taxa (e.g., algae, invertebrates, and fish) composition in the distribution of PNEC values. The ecoTTC continues to develop as a valuable alternative strategy within the toolbox of traditional and new approach methods for ecological chemical assessment. This brief review article describes the ecoTTC concept and potential applications in ecological risk assessment, provides an overview of the ecoTTC workflow and how the values can be derived, and highlights recent developments and ongoing research. Future applications of ecoTTC concept in different disciplines are discussed along with opportunities for its use.

Derivation of algal acute to chronic ratios for use in chemical toxicity extrapolations.

Algal toxicity studies are required by regulatory agencies for a variety of purposes including classification and labeling and environmental risk assessment of chemicals. Algae are also frequently the most sensitive taxonomic group tested. Acute to chronic ratios (ACRs) have been challenging to derive for algal species because of the complexities of the underlying experimental data including: a lack of universally agreed upon algal inhibition endpoints; evolution of experimental designs over time and by different standardization authorities; and differing statistical approaches (e.g., regression versus hypothesis-based effect concentrations). Experimental data for developing globally accepted algal ACRs have been limited because of data availability, and in most regulatory frameworks an ACR of 10 is used regardless of species, chemical type or mode of action. Acute and chronic toxicity (inhibition) data on 17 algal species and 442 chemicals were compiled from the EnviroTox database (https://envirotoxdatabase.org/) and a proprietary database of algal toxicity records. Information was probed for growth rate, yield, and final cell density endpoints focusing primarily on studies of 72 and 96 h duration. Comparisons of acute and chronic data based on either single (e.g., growth rate) and multiple (e.g., growth rate, final cell density) endpoints were used to assess acute and chronic relationships. Linear regressions of various model permutations were used to compute ACRs for multiple combinations of taxa, chemicals, and endpoints, and showed that ACRs for algae were consistently around 4 (ranging from 2.43 to 5.62). An ACR of 4 for algal toxicity is proposed as an alternative to a default value of 10, and recommendations for consideration and additional research and development are provided.

Evaluation of a Bayesian Network for Strengthening the Weight of Evidence to Predict Acute Fish Toxicity from Fish Embryo Toxicity Data.

The use of fish embryo toxicity (FET) data for hazard assessments of chemicals, in place of acute fish toxicity (AFT) data, has long been the goal for many environmental scientists. The FET test was first proposed as a replacement to the standardized AFT test nearly 15 y ago, but as of now, it has still not been accepted as a standalone replacement by regulatory authorities such as the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA). However, the ECHA has indicated that FET data can be used in a weight of evidence (WoE) approach, if enough information is available to support the conclusions related to the hazard assessment. To determine how such a WoE approach could be applied in practice has been challenging. To provide a conclusive WoE for FET data, we have developed a Bayesian network (BN) to incorporate multiple lines of evidence to predict AFT. There are 4 different lines of evidence in this BN model: 1) physicochemical properties, 2) AFT data from chemicals in a similar class or category, 3) ecotoxicity data from other trophic levels of organisms (e.g., daphnids and algae), and 4) measured FET data. The BN model was constructed from data obtained from a curated database and conditional probabilities assigned for the outcomes of each line of evidence. To evaluate the model, 20 data-rich chemicals, containing a minimum of 3 AFT and FET test data points, were selected to ensure a suitable comparison could be performed. The results of the AFT predictions indicated that the BN model could accurately predict the toxicity interval for 80% of the chemicals evaluated. For the remaining chemicals (20%), either daphnids or algae were the most sensitive test species, and for those chemicals, the daphnid or algal hazard data would have driven the environmental classification. Integr Environ Assess Manag 2020;16:452-460. © 2020 The Authors. Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of Society of Environmental Toxicology & Chemistry (SETAC).

Mode of Action Classifications in the EnviroTox Database: Development and Implementation of a Consensus MOA Classification.

Multiple mode of action (MOA) frameworks have been developed in aquatic ecotoxicology, mainly based on fish toxicity. These frameworks provide information on a key determinant of chemical toxicity, but the MOA categories and level of specificity remain unique to each of the classification schemes. The present study aimed to develop a consensus MOA assignment within EnviroTox, a curated in vivo aquatic toxicity database, based on the following MOA classification schemes: Verhaar (modified) framework, Assessment Tool for Evaluating Risk, Toxicity Estimation Software Tool, and OASIS. The MOA classifications from each scheme were first collapsed into one of 3 categories: non-specifically acting (i.e., narcosis), specifically acting, or nonclassifiable. Consensus rules were developed based on the degree of concordance among the 4 individual MOA classifications to attribute a consensus MOA to each chemical. A confidence rank was also assigned to the consensus MOA classification based on the degree of consensus. Overall, 40% of the chemicals were classified as narcotics, 17% as specifically acting, and 43% as unclassified. Sixty percent of chemicals had a medium to high consensus MOA assignment. When compared to empirical acute toxicity data, the general trend of specifically acting chemicals being more toxic is clearly observed for both fish and invertebrates but not for algae. EnviroTox is the first approach to establishing a high-level consensus across 4 computationally and structurally distinct MOA classification schemes. This consensus MOA classification provides both a transparent understanding of the variation between MOA classification schemes and an added certainty of the MOA assignment. In terms of regulatory relevance, a reliable understanding of MOA can provide information that can be useful for the prioritization (ranking) and risk assessment of chemicals. Environ Toxicol Chem 2019;38:2294-2304. © 2019 The Authors. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of SETAC.

Toward Sustainable Environmental Quality: Priority Research Questions for North America.

Anticipating, identifying, and prioritizing strategic needs represent essential activities by research organizations. Decided benefits emerge when these pursuits engage globally important environment and health goals, including the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. To this end, horizon scanning efforts can facilitate identification of specific research needs to address grand challenges. We report and discuss 40 priority research questions following engagement of scientists and engineers in North America. These timely questions identify the importance of stimulating innovation and developing new methods, tools, and concepts in environmental chemistry and toxicology to improve assessment and management of chemical contaminants and other diverse environmental stressors. Grand challenges to achieving sustainable management of the environment are becoming increasingly complex and structured by global megatrends, which collectively challenge existing sustainable environmental quality efforts. Transdisciplinary, systems-based approaches will be required to define and avoid adverse biological effects across temporal and spatial gradients. Similarly, coordinated research activities among organizations within and among countries are necessary to address the priority research needs reported here. Acquiring answers to these 40 research questions will not be trivial, but doing so promises to advance sustainable environmental quality in the 21st century. Environ Toxicol Chem 2019;38:1606-1624. © 2019 The Authors. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of SETAC.

Creation of a Curated Aquatic Toxicology Database: EnviroTox.

Flexible, rapid, and predictive approaches that do not require the use of large numbers of vertebrate test animals are needed because the chemical universe remains largely untested for potential hazards. Development of robust new approach methodologies and nontesting approaches requires the use of existing information via curated, integrated data sets. The ecological threshold of toxicological concern (ecoTTC) represents one such new approach methodology that can predict a conservative de minimis toxicity value for chemicals with little or no information available. For the creation of an ecoTTC tool, a large, diverse environmental data set was developed from multiple sources, with harmonization, characterization, and information quality assessment steps to ensure that the information could be effectively organized and mined. The resulting EnviroTox database contains 91 217 aquatic toxicity records representing 1563 species and 4016 unique Chemical Abstracts Service numbers and is a robust, curated database containing high-quality aquatic toxicity studies that are traceable to the original information source. Chemical-specific information is also linked to each record and includes physico-chemical information, chemical descriptors, and mode of action classifications. Toxicity data are associated with the physico-chemical data, mode of action classifications, and curated taxonomic information for the organisms tested. The EnviroTox platform also includes 3 analysis tools: a predicted-no-effect concentration calculator, an ecoTTC distribution tool, and a chemical toxicity distribution tool. Although the EnviroTox database and tools were originally developed to support ecoTTC analysis and development, they have broader applicability to the field of ecological risk assessment. Environ Toxicol Chem 2019;9999:1-12. © 2019 The Authors. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of SETAC.

Fish embryo tests and acute fish toxicity tests are interchangeable in the application of the threshold approach.

A database was compiled for algal Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) test guideline 201, for Daphnia magna OECD test guideline 202, for the acute fish toxicity (AFT) OECD test guideline 203, and for the fish embryo toxicity (FET) OECD test guideline 236 to assess the suitability and applicability of the FET test in a threshold approach context. In the threshold approach, algal and Daphnia toxicity are assessed first, after which a limit test is conducted at the lower of the 2 toxicity values using fish. If potential fish toxicity is indicated, a full median lethal concentration assay is performed. This tiered testing strategy can significantly reduce the number of fish used in toxicity testing because algae or Daphnia are typically more sensitive than fish. A total of 165 compounds had AFT and FET data available, and of these, 82 had algal and Daphnia acute toxicity data available. Algae and Daphnia were more sensitive 75 to 80% of the time. Fish or FET tests were most sensitive 20 and 16% of the time, respectively, when considered as the sole fish toxicity indicator and 27% of the time when both were considered simultaneously. When fish were the most sensitive trophic level, different compounds were identified as the most toxic in FET and to AFT tests; however, the differences were not so large that they resulted in substantially different outcomes when potencies were binned using the United Nations categories of aquatic toxicity under the Globally Harmonized System for classification and labeling. It is recommended that the FET test could be used to directly replace the AFT test in the threshold approach or could be used as the definitive test if an AFT limit test indicated toxicity potential for a chemical. Environ Toxicol Chem 2019;38:671-681. © 2019 SETAC.

Advancing the quality of environmental microplastic research.

Investigations into the environmental fate and effects of microplastics have been gaining momentum. Small, insoluble polymeric particles are implicated by scientists in a wide variety of studies that are used to suggest a potential for widespread impacts in freshwater and marine pelagic and sediment environments. An exponential growth in scientific publications and an increase in regulatory attention have occurred. However, despite these efforts, the environmental hazard of these particles is still unknown. To evaluate the hazard of microplastics within a risk assessment context, we need a way to evaluate the quality of experimental studies. We performed a thorough review of the quality and focus of environmental microplastic research, to understand the methodologies employed and how this may assist or distract from the ability of environmental risk assessors to evaluate microplastics. We provide guidance to improve the reliability and relevance of ecotoxicological studies for regulatory and broader environmental assessments. Nine areas of needed improvement are identified and discussed. Important data gaps and experimental limitations are highlighted. Environ Toxicol Chem 2017;36:1697-1703. © 2017 SETAC.

Observed and modeled effects of pH on bioconcentration of diphenhydramine, a weakly basic pharmaceutical, in fathead minnows.

A need exists to better understand the influence of pH on the uptake and accumulation of ionizable pharmaceuticals in fish. In the present study, fathead minnows were exposed to diphenhydramine (DPH; disassociation constant = 9.1) in water for up to 96 h at 3 nominal pH levels: 6.7, 7.7, and 8.7. In each case, an apparent steady state was reached by 24 h, allowing for direct determination of the bioconcentration factor (BCF), blood-water partitioning (PBW,TOT), and apparent volume of distribution (approximated from the whole-body-plasma concentration ratio). The BCFs and measured PBW,TOT values increased in a nonlinear manner with pH, whereas the volume of distribution remained constant, averaging 3.0 L/kg. The data were then simulated using a model that accounts for acidification of the gill surface caused by elimination of metabolically produced acid. Good agreement between model simulations and measured data was obtained for all tests by assuming that plasma binding of ionized DPH is 16% that of the neutral form. A simpler model, which ignores elimination of metabolically produced acid, performed less well. These findings suggest that pH effects on accumulation of ionizable compounds in fish are best described using a model that accounts for acidification of the gill surface. Moreover, measured plasma binding and volume of distribution data for humans, determined during drug development, may have considerable value for predicting chemical binding behavior in fish.

Comparative endpoint sensitivity of in vitro estrogen agonist assays.

Environmental and human health implications of endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs), particularly xenoestrogens, have received extensive study. In vitro assays are increasingly employed as diagnostic tools to comparatively evaluate chemicals, whole effluent toxicity and surface water quality, and to identify causative EDCs during toxicity identification evaluations. Recently, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) initiated ToxCast under the Tox21 program to generate novel bioactivity data through high throughput screening. This information is useful for prioritizing chemicals requiring additional hazard information, including endocrine active chemicals. Though multiple in vitro and in vivo techniques have been developed to assess estrogen agonist activity, the relative endpoint sensitivity of these approaches and agreement of their conclusions remain unclear during environmental diagnostic applications. Probabilistic hazard assessment (PHA) approaches, including chemical toxicity distributions (CTD), are useful for understanding the relative sensitivity of endpoints associated with in vitro and in vivo toxicity assays by predicting the likelihood of chemicals eliciting undesirable outcomes at or above environmentally relevant concentrations. In the present study, PHAs were employed to examine the comparative endpoint sensitivity of 16 in vitro assays for estrogen agonist activity using a diverse group of compounds from the USEPA ToxCast dataset. Reporter gene assays were generally observed to possess greater endpoint sensitivity than other assay types, and the Tox21 ERa LUC BG1 Agonist assay was identified as the most sensitive in vitro endpoint for detecting an estrogenic response. When the sensitivity of this most sensitive ToxCast in vitro endpoint was compared to the human MCF-7 cell proliferation assay, a common in vitro model for biomedical and environmental monitoring applications, the ERa LUC BG1 assay was several orders of magnitude less sensitive than MCF-7. These observations highlight the importance of employing multiple assays with various molecular initiation and signaling events to inform selection, application, and interpretation of in vitro endpoint responses during future environmental diagnostic applications.

Bioaccumulation and trophic dilution of human pharmaceuticals across trophic positions of an effluent-dependent wadeable stream.

Though pharmaceuticals are increasingly observed in a variety of organisms from coastal and inland aquatic systems, trophic transfer of pharmaceuticals in aquatic food webs have not been reported. In this study, bioaccumulation of select pharmaceuticals was investigated in a lower order effluent-dependent stream in central Texas, USA, using isotope dilution liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (MS). A fish plasma model, initially developed from laboratory studies, was tested to examine observed versus predicted internal dose of select pharmaceuticals. Pharmaceuticals accumulated to higher concentrations in invertebrates relative to fish; elevated concentrations of the antidepressant sertraline and its primary metabolite desmethylsertraline were observed in the Asian clam, Corbicula fluminea, and two unionid mussel species. Trophic positions were determined from stable isotopes (δ(15)N and δ(13)C) collected by isotope ratio-MS; a Bayesian mixing model was then used to estimate diet contributions towards top fish predators. Because diphenhydramine and carbamazepine were the only target compounds detected in all species examined, trophic magnification factors (TMFs) were derived to evaluate potential trophic transfer of both compounds. TMFs for diphenhydramine (0.38) and carbamazepine (1.17) indicated neither compound experienced trophic magnification, which suggests that inhalational and not dietary exposure represented the primary route of uptake by fish in this effluent-dependent stream.

Reducing aquatic hazards of industrial chemicals: probabilistic assessment of sustainable molecular design guidelines.

Basic toxicological information is lacking for the majority of industrial chemicals. In addition to increasing empirical toxicity data through additional testing, prospective computational approaches to drug development aim to serve as a rational basis for the design of chemicals with reduced toxicity. Recent work has resulted in the derivation of a "rule of 2," wherein chemicals with an octanol-water partition coefficient (log P) less than 2 and a difference between the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital and the highest occupied molecular orbital (ΔE) greater than 9 (log P<2 and ΔE >9 eV) are predicted to be 4 to 5 times less likely to elicit acute or chronic toxicity to model aquatic organisms. The present study examines potential reduction of aquatic toxicity hazards from industrial chemicals if these 2 molecular design guidelines were employed. Probabilistic hazard assessment approaches were used to model the likelihood of encountering industrial chemicals exceeding toxicological categories of concern both with and without the rule of 2. Modeling predicted that utilization of these molecular design guidelines for log P and ΔE would appreciably decrease the number of chemicals that would be designated to be of "high" and "very high" concern for acute and chronic toxicity to standard model aquatic organisms and end points as defined by the US Environmental Protection Agency. For example, 14.5% of chemicals were categorized as having high and very high acute toxicity to the fathead minnow model, whereas only 3.3% of chemicals conforming to the design guidelines were predicted to be in these categories. Considerations of specific chemical classes (e.g., aldehydes), chemical attributes (e.g., ionization), and adverse outcome pathways in representative species (e.g., receptor-mediated responses) could be used to derive future property guidelines for broader classes of contaminants.

Similar anxiolytic effects of agonists targeting serotonin 5-HT1A or cannabinoid CB receptors on zebrafish behavior in novel environments.

The discovery that selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) such as fluoxetine are present and bioaccumulate in aquatic ecosystems have spurred studies of fish serotonin transporters (SERTs) and changes in SSRI-sensitive behaviors as adverse outcomes relevant for risk assessment. Many SSRIs also act at serotonin 5-HT1A receptors. Since capitalizing on this action may improve treatments of clinical depression and other psychiatric disorders, novel multimodal drugs that agonize 5-HT1A and block SERT were introduced. In mammals both 5-HT1A and CB agonists, such as buspirone and WIN55,212-2, reduce anxious behaviors. Immunological and behavioral evidence suggests that 5-HT1A-like receptors may function similarly in zebrafish (Danio rerio), yet their pharmacological properties are not well characterized. Herein we compared the density of [(3)H] 8-hydroxy-2-di-n-propylamino tetralin (8-OH-DPAT) binding to 5-HT1A-like sites in the zebrafish brain, to that of similarly Gαi/o-coupled cannabinoid receptors. [(3)H] 8-OH-DPAT specific binding was 176±8, 275±32, and 230±36fmol/mg protein in the hypothalamus, optic tectum, and telencephalon. [(3)H] WIN55,212-2 binding density was higher in those same brain regions at 6±0.3, 5.5±0.4 and 7.3±0.3pm/mg protein. The aquatic light-dark plus maze was used to examine behavioral effects of 5-HT1A and CB receptor agonists on zebrafish novelty-based anxiety. With acute exposure to the 5-HT1A partial-agonist buspirone (50mg/L), or dietary exposure to WIN55,212-2 (7µg/week) zebrafish spent more time in and/or entered white arms more often than controls (p<0.05). Acute exposure to WIN55,212-2 at 0.5-50mg/L reduced mobility. These behavioral findings suggest that azipirones, like cannabinoid agonists, have anxiolytic and/or sedative properties on fish in novel environments. These observations highlight the need to consider potential ecological risks of azapirones and multimodal antidepressants in the future.

Enantiomer-specific in vitro biotransformation of select pharmaceuticals in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss).

The occurrence of pharmaceuticals in the environment represents a challenge of emerging concern. Many pharmaceuticals are chiral compounds; however, few studies have examined the relative toxicity of pharmaceutical enantiomers to wildlife. Further, our understanding of stereospecific pharmacokinetics remains largely informed by research on humans and a few well-studied laboratory test animals, and not by studies conducted with environmentally relevant species, including fish. The objective of this study was to investigate whether rainbow trout display stereospecific in vitro metabolism of three common chiral pharmaceuticals. Metabolism by trout liver S9 fractions was evaluated using a substrate depletion approach, which provides an estimate of intrinsic hepatic clearance (CL(IN VITRO,INT)). No biotransformation was observed for rac-, R-, or S-fluoxetine. Ibuprofen, including both enantiomers and the racemic mixture, appeared to undergo slow metabolism, but the resulting substrate depletion curves did not differ significantly from those of inactive controls. Contrary to relative clearance rates in humans, S(-)-propranolol was more rapidly cleared than the R(+)-enantiomer. This work demonstrates that relative clearance rates and the effects of racemic mixtures in trout could not have been predicted based on human data. Additional research describing species differences and exploring tools for species extrapolation in biomedical and environmental studies is needed.

Comparative pharmaceutical metabolism by rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) liver S9 fractions.

The occurrence of pharmaceuticals in the environment presents a challenge of growing concern. In contrast to many industrial compounds, pharmaceuticals undergo extensive testing prior to their introduction to the environment. In principle, therefore, it may be possible to employ existing pharmacological safety data using biological "read-across" methods to support screening-level bioaccumulation environmental risk assessment. However, few approaches and robust empirical data sets exist, particularly for comparative pharmacokinetic applications. For many pharmaceuticals, the primary cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzymes responsible for their metabolism have been identified in humans. The purpose of the present study was to employ a comparative approach to determine whether rainbow trout biotransform pharmaceuticals known to be substrates for specific human CYPs. Seven compounds were selected based on their primary metabolism in humans by CYP3A4, CYP2D6, or CYP2C9. Five additional test compounds are known to be substrates for multiple CYPs. Metabolism by rainbow trout liver S9 fractions was evaluated using a substrate-depletion approach, which provided an estimate of intrinsic hepatic clearance (CLIN VITRO,INT ). An isotope dilution liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry method was employed for quantitation of parent chemical concentrations. Only 2 general CYP substrates demonstrated measurable levels of substrate depletion. No significant biotransformation was observed for known substrates of human CYP2D6, CYP2C9, or CYP3A4. The results of this study provide novel information for therapeutics that fish models are likely to metabolize based on existing mammalian data. Further, these results suggest that pharmaceuticals may possess a greater tendency to bioaccumulate in fish than previously anticipated.