Epidemiology of dog bites to people in Uruguay (2010-2020).

BACKGROUND: Dog bites to people are a serious public health problem. Limited information exists at the country level in Latin America. The COVID-19 pandemic changed people's lifestyles and their relationship with pets, and this could potentially affect the incidence of dog bites injuries. OBJECTIVE: The main objectives of our study were to determine the prevalence of dog-bite injuries in Uruguay from 2010 to 2020 and to compare the prevalence in 2020 to that of pre-pandemic years. METHODS: Cross-sectional study. Dog-bite notifications for the 2010 and 2020 period were analysed using data from the Uruguayan Ministry of Public Health. RESULTS: The annual dog-bite injury rate for the 2010-2020 period was 87.51 per 100,000 people. The frequency of bites varied with the victims' sex, with males accounting for 51.8% of the bites (p < 0.0001), and with age, with a higher frequency of bites in the ≤14 years old age group (p < 0.01). The frequency of dog bites was also higher in spring and summer than in autumn (p < 0.0001). There was no statistical difference in the frequency of dog-bite injuries when comparing 2020 with the pre-COVID-19 pandemic years. CONCLUSIONS: In Uruguay, the frequency of dog-bite injuries varied with season and with the age and sex of the victim. In the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic, the number of people bitten by dogs was no different than that of previous years. This is the first study in Latin America to report national rather than regional data and to include all age groups.

Evaluation and establishment of reference intervals using the i-STAT1 blood chemistry analyzer in turkeys.

In veterinary medicine, point-of-care testing techniques have become popular, since they provide immediate results and only small amounts of blood are needed. The handheld i-STAT1 blood analyzer is used by poultry researchers and veterinarians; however, no studies have evaluated the accuracy of this analyzer determined reference intervals in turkey blood. The objectives of this study were to 1) investigate the effect of storage time on turkey blood analytes, 2) compare the results obtained by the i-STAT1 analyzer to those obtained by the GEM Premier 3000, a conventional laboratory analyzer, and 3) establish reference intervals for blood gases and chemistry analytes in growing turkeys using the i-Stat. For the first and second objectives, we used the CG8+ i-STAT1 cartridges to test blood from 30 healthy turkeys in triplicate and once with the conventional analyzer. To establish the reference intervals, we tested a total 330 blood samples from healthy turkeys from 6 independent flocks during a 3-yr period. Blood samples were then divided into brooder (<1 wk) and growing (1-12 wk of age). Friedman's test demonstrated significant time-dependent changes in blood gas analytes, but not for electrolytes. Bland-Altman analysis revealed that there was agreement between the i-STAT1 and the GEM Premier 300 for most of the analytes. However, Passing-Bablok regression analysis identified constant and proportional biases in the measurement of multiple analytes. Tukey's test revealed significant differences in the whole blood analytes between the means of brooding and growing birds. The data presented in the present study provide a basis for measuring and interpreting blood analytes in the brooding and growing stages of the turkey lifecycle, offering a new approach to health monitoring in growing turkeys.

Interventions and observations associated with survival of orphaned shelter kittens undergoing treatment for diarrhea.

OBJECTIVES: The objective of this study was to identify significant associations between treatment interventions and survival of orphaned shelter kittens with diarrhea. METHODS: Orphaned kittens admitted to a large open-intake municipal animal shelter and entering a volunteer foster care provider network between April 2016 and July 2017 were studied. Individual orphaned kittens for which the care provider sought examination by shelter veterinarians because of clinical signs of diarrhea were included. Treatments administered were recorded and their association with kitten survival to adoption or transfer to a rescue partner was statistically examined. RESULTS: A total of 1718 orphaned kittens were fostered, among which 220 kittens (12.8%) from 118 different litters were presented for evaluation of diarrhea. A total of 172 (78.2%) kittens underwent treatment for their diarrhea, among which 153 (89.0%) survived to adoption or transfer to a rescue partner and 19 (11.0%) died or were humanely euthanized. Kittens with diarrhea that were ⩾4 weeks of age were 24.8 times more likely to survive (95% confidence interval [CI] 6.8-89.8; P <0.0001). While controlling for age, kittens that received a vitamin and mineral supplement were 12.8 times more likely to survive (95% CI 3.1-52.5; P = 0.0004) than kittens with diarrhea that did not receive the supplement. Treatment with subcutaneous fluids, penicillin G, tube feeding, a probiotic containing Enterococcus faecium SF68, ponazuril or metronidazole did not statistically significantly increase the survival of kittens with diarrhea. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE: Age ⩾4 weeks and treatment of diarrhea with a vitamin and mineral supplement favorably improves survival of orphaned kittens to adoption. Application of these findings are likely to improve the health and welfare of this population and contribute to a refinement in use of shelter resources.

Public Preference for Pet-Rabies Prophylaxis: Opportunities and Information Dissemination.

Risky human behavior and high density of rabies vectors in urban environments combine to increase the risk of rabies. Pet vaccination, wildlife vector management, and public health education may be the most efficient ways to prevent urban rabies epidemics. Racial, ethnic, and socio-economic factors influence the use of low-cost rabies vaccination clinics, understanding rabies reporting requirements, and learning preferences. In collaboration with the City of Greensboro and Animal Control in Guilford County, NC, we conducted a survey of rabies prevention and transmission across socio-economic strata representing Latinos, African Americans, and Whites, and different income and education levels. Compliance with vaccination was low among Latinos; African Americans and Latinos were not aware of low-cost rabies vaccination clinics; and most respondents were willing to report rabid animals but did not know whom to call. White respondents preferred online information delivery, whereas Latinos and African Americans preferred postal mail. Communication targeting the public requires the consideration of different message decoding and interpretation based on the ethnicity, income, and educational level, and other barriers such as language. Differing message delivery methods may be required to achieve full dissemination.

Baylisascaris procyonis in raccoons (Procyon lotor) from North Carolina and current status of the parasite in the USA.

Baylisascaris procyonis is an intestinal nematode of raccoons (Procyon lotor) that can cause fatal larva migrans in numerous species of birds and mammals, including humans. Historically, this parasite has been rare in the southeastern USA but recently has been reported in eastern Tennessee and isolated parts of Georgia and Florida. The objective of the current study was to investigate the distribution and prevalence of B. procyonis in raccoons from North Carolina. In western North Carolina, in counties bordering Tennessee, B. procyonis was detected in nine of 74 (12 %) raccoons sampled in 2010-2011. In general, worm burdens (average 20 worms) were low, but one raccoon had 122 adult worms. No difference was noted in prevalence by year or age, but significantly more males were infected compared with females. Sequences of the internal transcribed spacer 2 region from three samples were identical to B. procyonis. In central North Carolina (Guilford County), all 34 raccoons and 49 fecal samples tested were negative. Collation of data from previous studies conducted in the Southeast indicates that B. procyonis has been reported from numerous counties, but surveillance has been patchy and many negative results are >30 years old. These results indicate that B. procyonis is established in North Carolina and given the zoonotic and wildlife health implications of this parasite, additional surveillance in North Carolina and other southeastern states is warranted.

Evaluation of cyclooxygenase protein expression in traumatized versus normal tissues from eastern box turtles (Terrapene carolina carolina).

This pilot study was designed to determine whether cyclooxygenase (COX)-1, COX-2, or both are expressed in normal turtle tissues and whether level of expression changes when tissue becomes inflamed. Five eastern box turtles, Terrapene carolina carolina, that either died or were euthanatized due to disease or injuries were used for this work. Tissues were obtained from the five turtles. Western blot analysis was used to evaluate tissues for COX-1 and COX-2 proteins. Densiometric analysis was used to compare Western blot bands within each turtle. COX-1 and COX-2 were found in the liver, kidney, grossly normal muscle, and grossly traumatized (inflamed) muscle of all study turtles. In all cases, COX-1 and COX-2 proteins were increased in traumatized muscle over grossly normal nontraumatized muscle. The highest levels of COX-1 and COX-2 proteins were found in kidney and liver. There was no statistical difference between the amount of COX-1 protein in liver and kidney, but traumatized muscle compared with grossly normal muscle had significantly greater COX-1 but not COX 2 protein concentrations. There was no statistical difference between the amount of COX-2 protein in liver and kidney. Traumatized muscle expressed nonstatistically significant greater amounts of COX-2 compared with grossly normal muscle. COX-1 and COX-2 proteins are expressed in turtle tissues, and both isoforms are upregulated during inflammation of muscle tissue. Traditional nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) that block both COX isoforms might be more efficacious than COX-2-selective drugs. This work suggests that NSAIDs should be evaluated for potential liver and kidney toxicity in turtles.

Transmission of MRSA between companion animals and infected human patients presenting to outpatient medical care facilities.

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a significant pathogen in both human and veterinary medicine. The importance of companion animals as reservoirs of human infections is currently unknown. The companion animals of 49 MRSA-infected outpatients (cases) were screened for MRSA carriage, and their bacterial isolates were compared with those of the infected patients using Pulsed-Field Gel Electrophoresis (PFGE). Rates of MRSA among the companion animals of MRSA-infected patients were compared to rates of MRSA among companion animals of pet guardians attending a "veterinary wellness clinic" (controls). MRSA was isolated from at least one companion animal in 4/49 (8.2%) households of MRSA-infected outpatients vs. none of the pets of the 50 uninfected human controls. Using PFGE, patient-pets MRSA isolates were identical for three pairs and discordant for one pair (suggested MRSA inter-specie transmission p-value = 0.1175). These results suggest that companion animals of MRSA-infected patients can be culture-positive for MRSA, representing a potential source of infection or re-infection for humans. Further studies are required to better understand the epidemiology of MRSA human-animal inter-specie transmission.

Transmission of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus between human and hamster.

Transmission of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) between humans and animals is increasingly recognized. We newly document that the transmission of MRSA between human and hamster is possible.

North Carolina Hispanic farmworkers and intestinal parasitism: a pilot study of prevalence and health-related practices, and potential means of foodborne transmission.

Migrant and seasonal farmworkers provide much of the necessary labor to harvest and process agricultural commodities desired by consumers. Little is known about the health status (especially the parasitic burden) of farm laborers, who handpick agricultural items such as fruits and vegetables, despite being implicated as a means of foodborne pathogen transmission. The goal of this research was to develop a framework to investigate enteric parasitic infections among Hispanic farmworkers in Eastern North Carolina. Seventy-one interviews were conducted, 16 stool samples were collected, and two parasite-positive workers were found. In addition, some potentially harmful health practices (e.g., self-medication) were identified. Further research is necessary to fully understand the scope of farmworker health issues and the potential risk of disseminating foodborne pathogens to humans. The study model presented provides a geographically expandable format to allow for various types of health investigations including the prevalence of other pathogens.

Detection and molecular characterization of swine hepatitis E virus in North Carolina swine herds and their faecal wastes.

Recent findings of almost genetically indistinguishable swine and human strains, have suggested swine play a role in the transmission of hepatitis E virus (HEV). The extent to which HEV may be present and persist in the faecal waste generated from intensive swine operations is largely unknown. The fate of swine waste liquid is often land application, possibly resulting in unintentional seepage into groundwater or run-off into surface waters, hence validating concerns of human exposure risks. Freshly passed swine faeces, barn flush liquid waste, and lagoon liquid from production sites in North Carolina were surveyed periodically for HEV using RT-PCR primers located in ORF2. On three farms where HEV RNA was detected in swine faeces, it was also found in stored liquid waste on several occasions. HEV presence was related to swine age but not to animal management and waste management procedures, which varied amongst the farms. Seasonal patterns of HEV prevalence could not be established as viral RNA was isolated at all time points from two farms. Phylogenetic analysis of 212 bases of the genomic RNA indicated that isolates resembled the known US swine and human strains (percentage nucleic acid homology 91 to 94%), with one amino acid substitution.

Hematology and plasma chemistry reference intervals for mature laboratory pine voles (Microtus pinetorum) as determined by using the nonparametric rank percentile method.

Plasma biochemical and hematologic values are important parameters for assessing animal health and experimental results. Although normal reference values for many rodent species have been published, there is a dearth of similar information for the genus Microtus. In addition, most studies use a mean and standard deviation to establish reference intervals, but doing so is not the recommendation of the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (formerly the National Committee on Clinical Laboratory Standards) or the International Federation of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine. The purpose of this study was to establish normal reference parameters for plasma biochemistry and hematology in mature pine voles (Microtus pinetorum) by using the nonparametric rank percentile method as recommended by the 2 laboratory medicine organizations mentioned. Samples of cardiac blood from a closed colony of pine voles were collected at euthanasia and evaluated under rodent settings on 2 automated hematology analyzers from 2 different manufacturers and on the same type of automated biochemistry analyzer. There were no sex-associated clinically significant differences between the sexes; younger animals had a lower hematocrit, higher mean corpuscular volume, and lower mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration than did older animals. Only platelet counts differed when comparing hematologic values from different analyzers. Relative to rats and mice, pine voles have a lower mean corpuscular volume and higher red blood cell count, higher blood urea nitrogen, much higher alanine aminotransferase, and lower glucose and phosphorous concentrations. Hematology and plasma biochemical results obtained in this study are considered representative for healthy adult laboratory pine voles under similar environmental conditions.

Isolation, detection and characterization of swine hepatitis E virus from herds in Costa Rica.

Although swine HEV isolates from North America, Europe, and Asia have been genetically characterized, little is known about the strains presumed to be circulating in Latin America. In this study, seven commercial swine production sites in Costa Rica were surveyed for HEV. Using RT-PCR, with primers located in ORF2, 19/52 fecal samples produced a product of the expected size following two rounds of amplification. Most positive samples were from swine between the ages of 1.5 and 4 months. This study provides documented evidence for the endemicity of HE infections in swine residing in Central America. Through nucleic acid sequencing, isolates were found to be genetically similar, if not identical, with no amino acid substitutions. By comparison of swine and human HEV strains representing all four genotypes and phylogenetic analysis, our isolates closely resembled the US swine and human and other Genotype III strains, with 85-93% nucleic acid identity.

Analysis of sodium carboxymethylcellulose administration and related factors associated with postoperative colic and survival in horses with small intestinal disease.

OBJECTIVE: To analyze the effect of the intraoperative use of sodium carboxymethylcellulose (CBMC) and related perioperative factors on postoperative colic and survival in horses that had abdominal surgery for colic. STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective study. ANIMALS: Horses (n=203) that had surgery for small intestinal disease; 33 horses had intraoperative administration of CBMC. METHODS: Information was obtained from medical records for 170 horses that had surgery for colic before use of CBMC and 33 horses that had intraoperative CBMC. Kaplan-Meier survival curves were used to estimate median survival time and a Cox proportional hazards model was used to estimate the hazard ratio for the effect of CBMC and other perioperative variables on survival. RESULTS: Seventy-five percent of horses administered CBMC survived to 180 days, whereas 75% of untreated horses survived 8 days (median survival time=18 days). Horses not administered CBMC were twice as likely to die compared with horses administered CBMC. Horses that had postoperative ileus (POI) were 1.4 times more likely to die than horses without ileus. Similarly, horses with signs of colic after surgery were 1.3 times more likely to die than horses without postoperative signs of colic. CONCLUSIONS: CBMC administration is seemingly protective against death and prolongs survival when used intraoperatively in horses with small intestine disease, particularly horses with postoperative colic or POI. Both POI and colic increased risk of death after surgery. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Intraoperative administration of CBMC in horses that have surgery for small intestinal disease may improve survival, possibly by reducing early adhesion formation.

Use of basal serum or plasma cortisol concentrations to rule out a diagnosis of hypoadrenocorticism in dogs: 123 cases (2000-2005).

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether basal serum or plasma cortisol concentration can be used as a screening test to rule out hypoadrenocorticism in dogs. DESIGN: Retrospective case-control study. ANIMALS: 110 dogs with nonadrenal gland illnesses and 13 dogs with hypoadrenocorticism. PROCEDURES: Sensitivity and specificity of basal serum or plasma cortisol concentrations of either 2 microg/dL that are not receiving corticosteroids, mitotane, or ketoconazole are highly unlikely to have hypoadrenocorticism. However, if the basal cortisol concentration is

Improved survival associated with postoperative wound infection in dogs treated with limb-salvage surgery for osteosarcoma.

BACKGROUND: Limb-salvage surgery and adjuvant chemotherapy are performed as a treatment of appendicular osteosarcoma in dogs. Approximately 50% of dogs that undergo limb-salvage surgery develop postoperative surgical wound infections. Postoperative surgical infections may affect survival in cancer patients. The purposes of this study were to examine the effect of surgical wound infection on survival, local recurrence, and metastasis in relation to other prognostic factors for dogs with spontaneous osteosarcoma treated with limb-salvage surgery. METHODS: Forty-seven client-owned dogs with osteosarcoma of the distal radius were treated with limb-salvage surgery and adjuvant chemotherapy--either carboplatin or carboplatin and doxorubicin. Hazard ratios were estimated by using the Cox proportional hazard model, and survival functions were estimated by using the Kaplan-Meier product-limit life-table method. RESULTS: Of the 47 dogs in this study, 32 (68%) developed a postoperative wound infection. Infection, dog weight, and extent of the primary tumor (percentage of length) significantly affected survival, and infection and percentage of length significantly affected time to metastasis. None of the variables considered in this study affected local recurrence. Dogs that were diagnosed with an infection were less likely to die (hazard ratio, .446), and dogs with greater body weight and greater percentage length involvement were more likely to die (hazard ratios of 3.37 and 3.66, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: In dogs with osteosarcoma treated with limb-salvage surgery, infection has a positive influence on survival, as does a smaller initial length of radius involved and lower body weight.

Geographic distribution of babesiosis among dogs in the United States and association with dog bites: 150 cases (2000-2003).

OBJECTIVE: To identify the geographic distribution of babesiosis among dogs in the United States and determine, for dogs other than American Pit Bull Terriers (APBTs), whether infection was associated with a recent dog bite. DESIGN: Retrospective study. ANIMALS: 150 dogs. PROCEDURE: Canine blood samples submitted to the North Carolina State University Vector-Borne Disease Diagnostic Laboratory between May 2000 and October 2003 for which results of a Babesia-specific polymerase chain reaction assay were positive were identified, and breed and geographic origin of dogs from which samples were obtained were recorded. History and hematologic abnormalities for dogs that were not APBTs were recorded, and possible associations with a recent dog bite were examined. RESULTS: Dogs positive for Babesia DNA were located in 29 states and 1 Canadian province (Ontario). Babesia gibsoni was the most commonly detected species, with B gibsoni DNA detected in blood samples from 131 of 144 (91%) dogs. Of the 131 dogs positive for B gibsoni DNA, 122 (93%) were APBTs. Of the 10 dogs positive for Babesia canis vogeli DNA, 6 were Greyhounds. In dogs other than APBTs, there was an association between having recently been bitten by another dog, particularly an APBT, and infection with B gibsoni. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Results document an expansion of the known geographic range for babesiosis among dogs in the United States. Testing for babesiosis should be pursued in dogs with clinicopathologic abnormalities consistent with immune-mediated hemolytic anemia or thrombocytopenia, particularly if there is a history of a recent dog bite.

The dog as a sentinel for human infection: prevalence of Borrelia burgdorferi C6 antibodies in dogs from southeastern and mid-Atlantic States.

Lyme disease is the most frequently reported human vector-associated disease in the United States. Infection occurs after the bite of an Ixodid tick that is infected with Borrelia burgdorferi. Dogs have often been reported to serve as effective sentinel animals to assess the risk of human B. burgdorferi infection. Based on published data of human Lyme disease case numbers and our clinical impressions, we hypothesized that canine exposure to B. burgdorferi would be lower in North Carolina when compared to the exposure in Virginia, Maryland, and Pennsylvania. To address this hypothesis, we evaluated B. burgdorferi exposure status utilizing a specific and sensitive C6 peptide-based enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Our convenience sample included 1,666 canine serum samples submitted to the Vector-Borne Disease Diagnostic Laboratory from North Carolina (n = 987), Virginia (n = 472), Maryland (n = 167), and Pennsylvania (n = 40). Comparisons among states were made using the Chisquare test or the Fisher's exact test; p-values were adjusted for multiple comparisons using the Bonferroni correction. A Chi-square test for trend was used to determine if there was an increase in the frequency of seroreactors associated with the geographical origin of the samples. The proportion of seroreactive dogs in North Carolina was markedly lower (p < 0.008) than that observed in dogs from Virginia, Maryland, and Pennsylvania. These results support the hypothesis that B. burgdorferi transmission seems to occur infrequently in North Carolina dogs as compared to dogs residing in other southeastern and mid-Atlantic states. Furthermore, they support the utility of dogs as a sentinel to characterize the risk of B. burgdorferi transmission to humans in a defined geographical location.

The effects of oral magnesium hydroxide administration on rumen fluid in cattle.

This study was conducted to determine the effects of oral magnesium hydroxide administration on rumen fluid in cattle. Six lactating Holstein cows (4-7 years of age) with rumen fistulas were studied. Cattle were randomly assigned to receive boluses of magnesium hydroxide (162 g) or a powdered form (450 g dissolved in 3.5 L of water) PO daily for 3 days. Analysis of rumen fluid, blood gas tensions, and pH and measurement of serum magnesium concentrations were conducted daily. The study was discontinued after 72 hours, or sooner if rumen pH exceeded 8.0. After at least 3 weeks, the study was repeated with each cow receiving the other form of magnesium hydroxide (powder or bolus). Compared with baseline rumen pH (mean +/- SD: 6.22 +/- 0.28), magnesium hydroxide boluses caused a significant increase (P < .05) in rumen pH after 48 (7.27 +/- 0.11) and 72 (8.01 +/- 0.16) hours of administration, whereas the powdered form caused a significant increase (P < .05) in rumen pH after 24 (7.54 +/- 0.19) and 48 (8.43 +/- 0.22) hours of administration. Both the powdered and bolus forms of magnesium hydroxide decreased rumen protozoal numbers and increased methylene blue reduction times compared with baseline values. There was no change in blood pH, bicarbonate, or base excess values. Serum magnesium concentrations were significantly increased (P < .05) in cows that received the magnesium hydroxide powder. The results of this study indicate that magnesium hydroxide has a potent alkalinizing effect on rumen pH and significantly decreases rumen microbial activity.

The dog as a sentinel for human infection: prevalence of Borrelia burgdorferi C6 antibodies in dogs from southeastern and mid-Atlantic states.

Lyme disease is the most frequently reported human vector-associated disease in the United States. Infection occurs after the bite of an Ixodid tick that is infected with Borrelia burgdorferi. Dogs have often been reported to serve as effective sentinel animals to assess the risk of human B. burgdorferi infection. Based on published data of human Lyme disease case numbers and our clinical impressions, we hypothesized that canine exposure to B. burgdorferi would be lower in North Carolina when compared to the exposure in Virginia, Maryland, and Pennsylvania. To address this hypothesis, we evaluated B. burgdorferi exposure status utilizing a specific and sensitive C6 peptide-based enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Our convenience sample included 1,666 canine serum samples submitted to the Vector Borne Disease Diagnostic Laboratory from North Carolina (n = 987), Virginia (n = 472), Maryland (n = 167), and Pennsylvania (n = 40). Comparisons among states were made using the Chi-square test or the Fisher's exact test; p-values were adjusted for multiple comparisons using the Bonferroni correction. A Chi-square test for trend was used to determine if there was an increase in the frequency of seroreactors associated with the geographical origin of the samples. The proportion of seroreactive dogs in North Carolina was markedly lower (p < 0.008) than that observed in dogs from Virginia, Maryland, and Pennsylvania. These results support the hypothesis that B. burgdorferi transmission seems to occur infrequently in North Carolina dogs as compared to dogs residing in other southeastern and mid-Atlantic states. Furthermore, they support the utility of dogs as a sentinel to characterize the risk of B. burgdorferi transmission to humans in a defined geographical location.

Antibody levels to hepatitis E virus in North Carolina swine workers, non-swine workers, swine, and murids.

In a cross-sectional serosurvey, eastern North Carolina swine workers (n = 165) were compared with non-swine workers (127) for the presence of antibodies to hepatitis E virus as measured by a quantitative immunoglobulin enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Using a cutoff of 20 Walter Reed U/ml, swine-exposed subjects had a 4.5-fold higher antibody prevalence (10.9%) than unexposed subjects (2.4%). No evidence of past clinical hepatitis E or unexplained jaundice could be elicited. Swine (84) and mice (61), from farm sites in the same region as exposed subjects, were also tested. Antibody prevalence in swine (overall = 34.5%) varied widely (10.0-91.7%) according to site, but no antibody was detected in mice. Our data contribute to the accumulating evidence that hepatitis E may be a zoonosis and specifically to the concept of it as an occupational infection of livestock workers.