Identification of Small Molecules Disrupting the Ubiquitin Proteasome System in Malaria.

The ubiquitin proteasome system (UPS) is one of the main proteolytic pathways in eukaryotic cells, playing an essential role in key cellular processes such as cell cycling and signal transduction. Changes in some of the components of this pathway have been implicated in various conditions, including cancer and infectious diseases such as malaria. The success of therapies based on proteasome inhibitors has been shown in human clinical trials. In addition to its proven tractability, the essentiality of the Plasmodium falciparum UPS underlines its potential as a source of targets to identify new antimalarial treatments. Two assays, previously developed to quantify the parasite protein ubiquitylation levels in a high throughput format, have been used to identify compounds that inhibit parasite growth by targeting P. falciparum UPS. Among the positive hits, specific inhibitors of the P. falciparum proteasome have been identified and characterized. Hits identified using this approach may be used as starting points for development of new antimalarial drugs. They may also be used as tools to further understand proteasome function and to identify new targets in P. falciparum UPS.

Unravelling the covalent binding of zampanolide and taccalonolide AJ to a minimalist representation of a human microtubule.

Many natural products target mammalian tubulin but only a few can form a covalent bond and hence irreversibly affect microtubule function. Among them, zampanolide (ZMP) and taccalonolide AJ (TAJ) stand out, not only because they are very potent antitumor agents but also because the adducts they form with ß-tubulin have been structurally characterized in atomic detail. By applying model building techniques, molecular orbital calculations, molecular dynamics simulations and hybrid QM/MM methods, we have gained insight into the 1,2- and 1,4-addition reactions of His229 and Asp226 to ZMP and TAJ, respectively, in the taxane-binding site of ß-tubulin. The experimentally inaccessible precovalent complexes strongly suggest a water-mediated proton shuttle mechanism for ZMP adduct formation and a direct nucleophilic attack by the carboxylate of Asp226 on C22 of the C22R,C23R epoxide in TAJ. The M-loop, which is crucially important for interprotofilament interactions, is structured into a short helix in both types of complexes, mostly as a consequence of the fixation of the phenol ring of Tyr283 and the guanidinium of Arg284. As a side benefit, we obtained evidence supporting the existence of a commonly neglected intramolecular disulfide bond between Cys241 and Cys356 in ß-tubulin that contributes to protein compactness and is absent in the ßIII isotype associated with resistance to taxanes and other drugs.

Identification of NEK3 and MOK as novel targets for lithium.

Lithium ion, commonly used as the carbonate salt in the treatment of bipolar disorders, has been identified as an inhibitor of several kinases, including Glycogen Synthase Kinase-3ß, for almost 20 years. However, both the exact mechanism of enzymatic inhibition and its apparent specificity for certain metalloenzymes are still a matter of debate. A data-driven hypothesis is presented that accounts for the specificity profile of kinase inhibition by lithium in terms of the presence of a unique protein environment in the magnesium-binding site. This hypothesis has been validated by the discovery of two novel potential targets for lithium, namely NEK3 and MOK, which are related to neuronal function.

Optimal HTS Fingerprint Definitions by Using a Desirability Function and a Genetic Algorithm.

The use of compound biological fingerprints built on data from high-throughput screening (HTS) campaigns, or HTS fingerprints, is a novel cheminformatics method of representing compounds by integrating chemical and biological activity data that is gaining momentum in its application to drug discovery, including hit expansion, target identification, and virtual screening. HTS fingerprints present two major limitations, noise and missing data, which are intrinsic to the high-throughput data acquisition technologies and to the assay availability or assay selection procedure used for their construction. In this work, we present a methodology to define an optimal set of HTS fingerprints by using a desirability function that encodes the principles of maximum biological and chemical space coverage and minimum redundancy between HTS assays. We used a genetic algorithm to optimize the desirability function and obtained an optimal fingerprint that was evaluated for performance in a test set of 33 diverse assays. Our results show that the optimal HTS fingerprint represents compounds in chemical biology space using 25% fewer assays. When used for virtual screening, the optimal HTS fingerprint obtained equivalent performance, in terms of both area under the curve and enrichment factors, to full fingerprints for 27 out of 33 test assays, while randomly assembled fingerpints could achieve equivalent performance in only 23 test assays.

Structural rationale for the cross-resistance of tumor cells bearing the A399V variant of elongation factor eEF1A1 to the structurally unrelated didemnin B, ternatin, nannocystin A and ansatrienin B.

At least four classes of structurally distinct natural products with potent antiproliferative activities target the translation elongation factor eEF1A1, which is best known as the G-protein that delivers amino acyl transfer RNAs (aa-tRNAs) to ribosomes during mRNA translation. We present molecular models in atomic detail that provide a common structural basis for the high-affinity binding of didemnin B, ternatin, ansatrienin B and nannocystin A to eEF1A1, as well as a rationale based on molecular dynamics results that accounts for the deleterious effect of replacing alanine 399 with valine. The proposed binding site, at the interface between domains I and III, is eminently hydrophobic and exists only in the GTP-bound conformation. Drug binding at this site is expected to disrupt neither loading of aa-tRNAs nor GTP hydrolysis but would give rise to stabilization of this particular conformational state, in consonance with reported experimental findings. The experimental solution of the three-dimensional structure of mammalian eEF1A1 has proved elusive so far and the highly homologous eEF1A2 from rabbit muscle has been crystallized and solved only as a homodimer in a GDP-bound conformation. Interestingly, in this dimeric structure the large interdomain cavity where the drugs studied are proposed to bind is occupied by a mostly hydrophobic α-helix from domain I of the same monomer. Since binding of this α-helix and any of these drugs to domain III of eEF1A(1/2) is, therefore, mutually exclusive and involves two distinct protein conformations, one intriguing possibility that emerges from our study is that the potent antiproliferative effect of these natural products may arise not only from inhibition of protein synthesis, which is the current dogma, but also from interference with some other non-canonical functions. From this standpoint, this type of drugs could be considered antagonists of eEF1A1/2 oligomerization, a hypothesis that opens up novel areas of research.

Making sense of the past: hyperstability of ancestral thioredoxins explained by free energy simulations.

Thioredoxin (Trx), a small and globular protein, is present in all kinds of organisms, from Archea to higher mammals. Throughout evolution, the Trx sequence has undergone subtle modifications to adapt to varying environmental conditions. The high degree of sequence conservation makes Trx very amenable to ancestral protein reconstruction techniques. In this work, we address the study of the structural and energetic determinants of thermostability in E. coli Trx using a dataset of mutations inspired by ancestral reconstruction. We compute, from first principles, the expected contribution of 19 different amino acid substitutions to the stability (ΔΔG) and the melting temperature (ΔTm) of the protein. We also describe the specific changes in structure and protein dynamics responsible for the stabilizing or destabilizing effects of these mutations. Our results point to local and independent changes for most of the variants. Our predictions are accurate enough to substantiate the proposal of new hypotheses regarding evolutionary relationships between mutations, as in the case of T89R, P68A and G74S or K90L and F102A, and reach beyond the initial set to suggest improved variants, such as K90I or K90Y.

Stepwise Simulation of 3,5-Dihydro-5-methylidene-4H-imidazol-4-one (MIO) Biogenesis in Histidine Ammonia-lyase.

A 3,5-dihydro-5-methylidene-4H-imidazol-4-one (MIO) electrophilic moiety is post-translationally and autocatalytically generated in homotetrameric histidine ammonia-lyase (HAL) and other enzymes containing the tripeptide Ala-Ser-Gly in a suitably positioned loop. The backbone cyclization step is identical to that taking place during fluorophore formation in green fluorescent protein from the tripeptide Ser-Tyr-Gly, but dehydration, rather than dehydrogenation by molecular oxygen, is the reaction that gives rise to the mature MIO ring system. To gain additional insight into this unique process and shed light on some still unresolved issues, we have made use of extensive molecular dynamics simulations and hybrid quantum mechanics/molecular mechanics calculations implementing the self-consistent charge density functional tight-binding method on a fully solvated tetramer of Pseudomonas putida HAL. Our results strongly support the idea that mechanical compression of the reacting loop by neighboring protein residues in the precursor state is absolutely required to prevent formation of inhibitory main-chain hydrogen bonds and to enforce proper alignment of donor and acceptor orbitals for bond creation. The consideration of the protein environment in our computations shows that water molecules, which have been mostly neglected in previous theoretical work, play a highly relevant role in the reaction mechanism and, more importantly, that backbone cyclization resulting from the nucleophilic attack of the Gly amide lone pair on the π* orbital of the Ala carbonyl precedes side-chain dehydration of the central serine.

Aggregated Compound Biological Signatures Facilitate Phenotypic Drug Discovery and Target Elucidation.

Predicting the cellular response of compounds is a challenge central to the discovery of new drugs. Compound biological signatures have risen as a way of representing the perturbation produced by a compound in the cell. However, their ability to encode specific phenotypic information and generating tangible predictions remains unknown, mainly because of the inherent noise in such data sets. In this work, we statistically aggregate signals from several compound biological signatures to find compounds that produce a desired phenotype in the cell. We exploit this method in two applications relevant for phenotypic screening in drug discovery programs: target-independent hit expansion and target identification. As a result, we present here (i) novel nanomolar inhibitors of cellular division that reproduce the phenotype and the mode of action of reference natural products and (ii) blockers of the NKCC1 cotransporter for autism spectrum disorders. Our results were confirmed in both cellular and biochemical assays of the respective projects. In addition, these examples provided novel insights on the information content and biological significance of compound biological signatures from HTS, and their applicability to drug discovery in general. For target identification, we show that novel targets can be predicted successfully for drugs by reporting new activities for nimedipine, fluspirilene, and pimozide and providing a rationale for repurposing and side effects. Our results highlight the opportunities of reusing public bioactivity data for prospective drug discovery, including scenarios where the effective target or mode of action of a particular molecule is not known, such as in phenotypic screening campaigns.

Application of Artificial Intelligence to the Prediction of the Antimicrobial Activity of Essential Oils.

Essential oils (EOs) are vastly used as natural antibiotics in Complementary and Alternative Medicine (CAM). Their intrinsic chemical variability and synergisms/antagonisms between its components make difficult to ensure consistent effects through different batches. Our aim is to evaluate the use of artificial neural networks (ANNs) for the prediction of their antimicrobial activity. Methods. The chemical composition and antimicrobial activity of 49 EOs, extracts, and/or fractions was extracted from NCCLS compliant works. The fast artificial neural networks (FANN) software was used and the output data reflected the antimicrobial activity of these EOs against four common pathogens: Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Candida albicans, and Clostridium perfringens as measured by standardised disk diffusion assays. Results. ANNs were able to predict >70% of the antimicrobial activities within a 10 mm maximum error range. Similarly, ANNs were able to predict 2 or 3 different bioactivities at the same time. The accuracy of the prediction was only limited by the inherent errors of the popular antimicrobial disk susceptibility test and the nature of the pathogens. Conclusions. ANNs can be reliable, fast, and cheap tools for the prediction of the antimicrobial activity of EOs thus improving their use in CAM.

Enantioselective oxidation of galactitol 1-phosphate by galactitol-1-phosphate 5-dehydrogenase from Escherichia coli.

Galactitol-1-phosphate 5-dehydrogenase (GPDH) is a polyol dehydrogenase that belongs to the medium-chain dehydrogenase/reductase (MDR) superfamily. It catalyses the Zn(2+)- and NAD(+)-dependent stereoselective dehydrogenation of L-galactitol 1-phosphate to D-tagatose 6-phosphate. Here, three crystal structures of GPDH from Escherichia coli are reported: that of the open state of GPDH with Zn(2+) in the catalytic site and those of the closed state in complex with the polyols Tris and glycerol, respectively. The closed state of GPDH reveals no bound cofactor, which is at variance with the conformational transition of the prototypical mammalian liver alcohol dehydrogenase. The main intersubunit-contacting interface within the GPDH homodimer presents a large internal cavity that probably facilitates the relative movement between the subunits. The substrate analogue glycerol bound within the active site partially mimics the catalytically relevant backbone of galactitol 1-phosphate. The glycerol binding mode reveals, for the first time in the polyol dehydrogenases, a pentacoordinated zinc ion in complex with a polyol and also a strong hydrogen bond between the primary hydroxyl group and the conserved Glu144, an interaction originally proposed more than thirty years ago that supports a catalytic role for this acidic residue.

A computational fragment-based de novo design protocol guided by ligand efficiency indices (LEI).

We present a new protocol aimed at the structure-based design of drug-like molecules using a fragment approach. It starts from a suitably placed and well-defined "base fragment" and then uses an incremental construction algorithm and a scoring function to grow the molecule into prioritized candidates. The selection of the most promising solutions for synthesis and validation is guided by the optimization of the calculated ligand efficiency indices known as binding efficiency index (BEI) and surface efficiency index (SEI), which allow the user to navigate proficiently in chemico-biological space. A test case for the protocol is exemplified here using published data for inhibitors of protein kinase B, aka AKT, a key enzyme in several signal transduction pathways. Our procedure was able to identify the main features responsible for the binding of inhibitors and guided the selection process towards molecules that included or resembled those shown as the most active in the original studies.

Microwave-assisted synthesis of potent PDE7 inhibitors containing a thienopyrimidin-4-amine scaffold.

A series of novel thienopyrimidin-4-amines have been synthesized and evaluated as phosphodiesterase (PDE) inhibitors. A rationale for the observed selectivity against PDE7 has been obtained from molecular modelling studies on the most active compounds.

Esterase LpEst1 from Lactobacillus plantarum: a novel and atypical member of the αß hydrolase superfamily of enzymes.

The genome of the lactic acid bacterium Lactobacillus plantarum WCFS1 reveals the presence of a rich repertoire of esterases and lipases highlighting their important role in cellular metabolism. Among them is the carboxylesterase LpEst1 a bacterial enzyme related to the mammalian hormone-sensitive lipase, which is known to play a central role in energy homeostasis. In this study, the crystal structure of LpEst1 has been determined at 2.05 Å resolution; it exhibits an αß-hydrolase fold, consisting of a central ß-sheet surrounded by α-helices, endowed with novel topological features. The structure reveals a dimeric assembly not comparable with any other enzyme from the bacterial hormone-sensitive lipase family, probably echoing the specific structural features of the participating subunits. Biophysical studies including analytical gel filtration and ultracentrifugation support the dimeric nature of LpEst1. Structural and mutational analyses of the substrate-binding pocket and active site together with biochemical studies provided insights for understanding the substrate profile of LpEst1 and suggested for the first time the conserved Asp173, which is adjacent to the nucleophile, as a key element in the stabilization of the loop where the oxyanion hole resides.

Molecular recognition of epothilones by microtubules and tubulin dimers revealed by biochemical and NMR approaches.

The binding of epothilones to dimeric tubulin and to microtubules has been studied by means of biochemical and NMR techniques. We have determined the binding constants of epothilone A (EpoA) and B (EpoB) to dimeric tubulin, which are 4 orders of magnitude lower than those for microtubules, and we have elucidated the conformation and binding epitopes of EpoA and EpoB when bound to tubulin dimers and microtubules in solution. The determined conformation of epothilones when bound to dimeric tubulin is similar to that found by X-ray crystallographic techniques for the binding of EpoA to the Tubulin/RB3/TTL complex; it is markedly different from that reported for EpoA bound to zinc-induced sheets obtained by electron crystallography. Likewise, only the X-ray structure of EpoA bound to the Tubulin/RB3/TTL complex at the luminal site, but not the electron crystallography structure, is compatible with the results obtained by STD on the binding epitope of EpoA bound to dimeric tubulin, thus confirming that the allosteric change (structuring of the M-loop) is the biochemical mechanism of induction of tubulin assembly by epothilones. TR-NOESY signals of EpoA bound to microtubules have been obtained, supporting the interaction with a transient binding site with a fast exchange rate (pore site), consistent with the notion that epothilones access the luminal site through the pore site, as has also been observed for taxanes. Finally, the differences in the tubulin binding affinities of a series of epothilone analogues has been quantitatively explained using the newly determined binding pose and the COMBINE methodology.

ALFA: automatic ligand flexibility assignment.

ALFA is a fast computational tool for the conformational analysis of small molecules that uses a custom-made iterative algorithm to provide a set of representative conformers in an attempt to reproduce the diversity of states in which small molecules can exist, either isolated in solution or bound to a target. The results shown in this work prove that ALFA is fast enough to be integrated into massive high-throughput virtual screening protocols with the aim of incorporating ligand flexibility and also that ALFA reproduces crystallographic X-ray structures of bound ligands with great accuracy. Furthermore, the application includes a graphical user interface that allows its use through the popular molecular graphics program PyMOL to make it accessible to nonexpert users. ALFA is distributed free of charge upon request from the authors.

Differential role of Snail1 and Snail2 zinc fingers in E-cadherin repression and epithelial to mesenchymal transition.

Snail1 (Snail) and Snail2 (Slug) are transcription factors that share a similar DNA binding structure of four and five C2H2 zinc finger motifs (ZF), respectively. Both factors bind specifically to a subset of E-box motifs (E2-box: CAGGTG/CACCTG) in target promoters like the E-cadherin promoter and are key mediators of epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT). However, there are differences in the biological actions, in binding affinities to E-cadherin promoter, and in the target genes of Snail1 and Snail2, although the molecular bases are presently unknown. In particular, the role of each Snail1 and Snail2 ZF in the binding to E-boxes and in EMT induction has not been previously explored. We have approached this question by modeling Snail1 and Snail2 protein-DNA interactions and through mutational and functional assays of different ZFs. Results show that Snail1 efficient repression and binding to human and mouse E-cadherin promoter as well as EMT-inducing ability require intact ZF1 and ZF2, while for Snail2, either ZF3 or ZF4 is essential for those functions. Furthermore, the differential distribution of E2-boxes in mouse and human E-cadherin promoters also contributes to the differential Snail factor activity. These data indicate a non-equivalent role of Snail1 and Snail2 ZFs in gene repression, contributing to the elucidation of the molecular differences between these important EMT regulators.

Comparison of ultra-fast 2D and 3D ligand and target descriptors for side effect prediction and network analysis in polypharmacology.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Some existing computational methods are used to infer protein targets of small molecules and can therefore be used to find new targets for existing drugs, with the goals of re-directing the molecule towards a different therapeutic purpose or explaining off-target effects due to multiple targeting. Inherent limitations, however, arise from the fact that chemical analogy is calculated on the basis of common frameworks or scaffolds and also because target information is neglected. The method we present addresses these issues by taking into account 3D information from both the ligand and the target. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH: ElectroShape is an established method for ultra-fast comparison of the shapes and charge distributions of ligands that is validated here for prediction of on-target activities, off-target profiles and adverse effects of drugs and drug-like molecules taken from the DrugBank database. KEY RESULTS: The method is shown to predict polypharmacology profiles and relate targets from two complementary viewpoints (ligand- and target-based networks). CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: The open-access web tool presented here (http://ub.cbm.uam.es/chemogenomics/) allows interactive navigation in a unified 'pharmacological space' from the viewpoints of both ligands and targets. It also enables prediction of pharmacological profiles, including likely side effects, for new compounds. We hope this web interface will help many pharmacologists to become aware of this new paradigm (up to now mostly used in the realm of the so-called 'chemical biology') and encourage its use with a view to revealing 'hidden' relationships between new and existing compounds and pharmacologically relevant targets.

AtlasCBS: a web server to map and explore chemico-biological space.

New approaches are needed that can help decrease the unsustainable failure in small-molecule drug discovery. Ligand Efficiency Indices (LEI) are making a great impact on early-stage compound selection and prioritization. Given a target-ligand database with chemical structures and associated biological affinities/activities for a target, the AtlasCBS server generates two-dimensional, dynamical representations of its contents in terms of LEI. These variables allow an effective decoupling of the chemical (angular) and biological (radial) components. BindingDB, PDBBind and ChEMBL databases are currently implemented. Proprietary datasets can also be uploaded and compared. The utility of this atlas-like representation in the future of drug design is highlighted with some examples. The web server can be accessed at http://ub.cbm.uam.es/atlascbs and https://www.ebi.ac.uk/chembl/atlascbs.

CRDOCK: an ultrafast multipurpose protein-ligand docking tool.

An ultrafast docking and virtual screening program, CRDOCK, is presented that contains (1) a search engine that can use a variety of sampling methods and an initial energy evaluation function, (2) several energy minimization algorithms for fine tuning the binding poses, and (3) different scoring functions. This modularity ensures the easy configuration of custom-made protocols that can be optimized depending on the problem in hand. CRDOCK employs a precomputed library of ligand conformations that are initially generated from one-dimensional SMILES strings. Testing CRDOCK on two widely used benchmarks, the ASTEX diverse set and the Directory of Useful Decoys, yielded a success rate of ~75% in pose prediction and an average AUC of 0.66. A typical ligand can be docked, on average, in just ~13 s. Extension to a representative group of pharmacologically relevant G protein-coupled receptors that have been recently cocrystallized with some selective ligands allowed us to demonstrate the utility of this tool and also highlight some current limitations. CRDOCK is now included within VSDMIP, our integrated platform for drug discovery.

A reverse combination of structure-based and ligand-based strategies for virtual screening.

A new approach is presented that combines structure- and ligand-based virtual screening in a reverse way. Opposite to the majority of the methods, a docking protocol is first employed to prioritize small ligands ("fragments") that are subsequently used as queries to search for similar larger ligands in a database. For a given chemical library, a three-step strategy is followed consisting of (1) contraction into a representative, non-redundant, set of fragments, (2) selection of the three best-scoring fragments docking into a given macromolecular target site, and (3) expansion of the fragments' structures back into ligands by using them as queries to search the library by means of fingerprint descriptions and similarity criteria. We tested the performance of this approach on a collection of fragments and ligands found in the ZINC database and the directory of useful decoys, and compared the results with those obtained using a standard docking protocol. The new method provided better overall results and was several times faster. We also studied the chemical diversity that both methods cover using an in-house compound library and concluded that the novel approach performs similarly but at a much smaller computational cost.