Activity Suppression Behavior Phenotype in SULT4A1 Frameshift Mutant Zebrafish.

Since its identification in 2000, sulfotransferase (SULT) 4A1 has presented an enigma to the field of cytosolic SULT biology. SULT4A1 is exclusively expressed in neural tissue, is highly conserved, and has been identified in every vertebrate studied to date. Despite this singular level of conservation, no substrate or function for SULT4A1 has been identified. Previous studies demonstrated that SULT4A1 does not bind the obligate sulfate donor, 3'-phosphoadenosine-5'-phosphosulfate, yet SULT4A1 is classified as a SULT superfamily member based on sequence and structural similarities to the other SULTs. In this study, transcription activator-like effector nucleases were used to generate heritable mutations in the SULT4A1 gene of zebrafish. The mutation (SULT4A1(Δ8)) consists of an 8-nucleotide deletion within the second exon of the gene, resulting in a frameshift mutation and premature stop codon after 132 AA. During early adulthood, casual observations were made that mutant zebrafish were exhibiting excessively sedentary behavior during the day. These observations were inconsistent with published reports on activity in zebrafish that are largely diurnal organisms and are highly active during the day. Thus, a decrease in activity during the day represents an abnormal behavior and warranted further systematic analysis. EthoVision video tracking software was used to monitor activity levels in wild-type (WT) and SULT4A1(Δ8/Δ8) fish over 48 hours of a normal light/dark cycle. SULT4A1(Δ8/Δ8) fish were shown to exhibit increased inactivity bout length and frequency as well as a general decrease in daytime activity levels when compared with their WT counterparts.

Structural plasticity in the human cytosolic sulfotransferase dimer and its role in substrate selectivity and catalysis.

The cytosolic sulfotransferases (SULTs) are dimeric enzymes that help maintain homeostasis through the modulation of hormone and drug activity by catalyzing their transformation into hydrophilic sulfate esters and increasing their excretion. Each of the thirteen active human SULT isoforms displays a unique substrate specificity pattern that underlies its individual role in our bodies. These specificities have proven to be complex, in some cases masking the biological role of specific isoforms. The first part of this review offers a short summary of historical underpinnings of human SULTs, primarily centered on the characterization of each isoform's kinetic and structural properties. Recent structural investigations have revealed each SULT has an active site "lid" that undergoes restructuring once the cofactor/sulfonate donor, 3'-phosphoadenosine-5'-phosphosulfate (PAPS), binds to the enzyme. This structural rearrangement can alter substrate-binding profiles, therefore complicating enzyme/substrate interactions and making substrate/cosubstrate concentrations and binding order important considerations in enzyme functionality. Molecular dynamic simulations have recently been employed to describe this restructuring in an attempt to offer insight to its effects on substrate selectivity. In addition to reviewing new data on SULT molecular dynamics, we will discuss the contribution of PAPS concentrations and SULT dimerization in the regulation of SULT activity within the human body.

Inhibition of SULT4A1 expression induces up-regulation of phototransduction gene expression in 72-hour postfertilization zebrafish larvae.

Sulfotransferase (SULT) 4A1 is an orphan enzyme that shares distinct structure and sequence similarities with other cytosolic SULTs. SULT4A1 is primarily expressed in neuronal tissue and is also the most conserved SULT, having been identified in every vertebrate investigated to date. Certain haplotypes of the SULT4A1 gene are correlated with higher baseline psychopathology in schizophrenic patients, but no substrate or function for SULT4A1 has yet been identified despite its high level of sequence conservation. In this study, deep RNA sequencing was used to search for alterations in gene expression in 72-hour postfertilization zebrafish larvae following transient SULT4A1 knockdown (KD) utilizing splice blocking morpholino oligonucleotides. This study demonstrates that transient inhibition of SULT4A1 expression in developing zebrafish larvae results in the up-regulation of several genes involved in phototransduction. SULT4A1 KD was verified by immunoblot analysis and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). Gene regulation changes identified by deep RNA sequencing were validated by qPCR. This study is the first identification of a cellular process whose regulation appears to be associated with SULT4A1 expression.