5HT1AR-FGFR1 Heteroreceptor Complexes Differently Modulate GIRK Currents in the Dorsal Hippocampus and the Dorsal Raphe Serotonin Nucleus of Control Rats and of a Genetic Rat Model of Depression.

The midbrain raphe serotonin (5HT) neurons provide the main ascending serotonergic projection to the forebrain, including hippocampus, which has a role in the pathophysiology of depressive disorder. Serotonin 5HT1A receptor (R) activation at the soma-dendritic level of serotonergic raphe neurons and glutamatergic hippocampal pyramidal neurons leads to a decrease in neuronal firing by activation of G protein-coupled inwardly-rectifying potassium (GIRK) channels. In this raphe-hippocampal serotonin neuron system, the existence of 5HT1AR-FGFR1 heteroreceptor complexes has been proven, but the functional receptor-receptor interactions in the heterocomplexes have only been investigated in CA1 pyramidal neurons of control Sprague Dawley (SD) rats. In the current study, considering the impact of the receptor interplay in developing new antidepressant drugs, the effects of 5HT1AR-FGFR1 complex activation were investigated in hippocampal pyramidal neurons and in midbrain dorsal raphe serotonergic neurons of SD rats and of a genetic rat model of depression (the Flinders Sensitive Line (FSL) rats of SD origin) using an electrophysiological approach. The results showed that in the raphe-hippocampal 5HT system of SD rats, 5HT1AR-FGFR1 heteroreceptor activation by specific agonists reduced the ability of the 5HT1AR protomer to open the GIRK channels through the allosteric inhibitory interplay produced by the activation of the FGFR1 protomer, leading to increased neuronal firing. On the contrary, in FSL rats, FGFR1 agonist-induced inhibitory allosteric action at the 5HT1AR protomer was not able to induce this effect on GIRK channels, except in CA2 neurons where we demonstrated that the functional receptor-receptor interaction is needed for producing the effect on GIRK. In keeping with this evidence, hippocampal plasticity, evaluated as long-term potentiation induction ability in the CA1 field, was impaired by 5HT1AR activation both in SD and in FSL rats, which did not develop after combined 5HT1AR-FGFR1 heterocomplex activation in SD rats. It is therefore proposed that in the genetic FSL model of depression, there is a significant reduction in the allosteric inhibition exerted by the FGFR1 protomer on the 5HT1A protomer-mediated opening of the GIRK channels in the 5HT1AR-FGFR1 heterocomplex located in the raphe-hippocampal serotonin system. This may result in an enhanced inhibition of the dorsal raphe 5HT nerve cell and glutamatergic hippocampal CA1 pyramidal nerve cell firing, which we propose may have a role in depression.

The impact of different exercise protocols on rat soleus muscle reinnervation and recovery following peripheral nerve lesion and regeneration.

Background: Incomplete functional recovery following traumatic peripheral nerve injury is common, mainly because not all axons successfully regenerate and reinnervate target muscles. Exercise can improve functional outcomes increasing the terminal sprouting during the muscle reinnervation. However, exercise is not a panacea per se. Indeed, the type of exercise adopted dramatically impacts the outcomes of rehabilitation therapy. To gain insight into the therapeutic effects of different exercise regimens on reinnervation following traumatic nerve lesion, we evaluated the impact of different clinically transferable exercise protocols (EPs) on metabolic and functional muscle recovery following nerve crush. Methods: The reinnervation of soleus muscle in adult nerve-crushed rats was studied following 6 days of different patterns (continuous or intermittent) and intensities (slow, mid, and fast) of treadmill running EPs. The effects of EPs on muscle fiber multiple innervation, contractile properties, metabolic adaptations, atrophy, and autophagy were assessed using functional and biochemical approaches. Results: Results showed that an intermittent mid-intensity treadmill EP improves soleus muscle reinnervation, whereas a slow continuous running EP worsens the functional outcome. However, the mid-intensity intermittent EP neither enhanced the critical mediators of exercise-induced metabolic adaptations, namely, PGC-1α, nor improved muscle atrophy. Conversely, the autophagy-related marker LC3 increased exclusively in the mid-intensity intermittent EP group. Conclusion: Our results demonstrated that an EP characterized by a mid-intensity intermittent activity enhances the functional muscle recovery upon a nerve crush, thus representing a promising clinically transferable exercise paradigm to improve recovery in humans following peripheral nerve injuries.

The biased hand. Mouse-tracking metrics to examine the conflict processing in a race-implicit association test.

In this study, we adapted a race-Implicit Association Test (race-IAT) to mouse-tracking (MT) technique to identify the more representative target observed MT-metrics and explore the temporal unfolding of the cognitive conflict emerging during the categorisation task. Participants of Western European descent performed a standard keyboard-response race-IAT (RT-race-IAT) and an MT-race-IAT with the same structure. From a behavioural point of view, our sample showed a typical Congruency Effect, thus a pro-White implicit bias, in the RT-race-IAT. In addition, in the MT-race-IAT, the MT-metrics showed a similar Congruency Effect mirroring the higher attraction of the averaged-trajectories towards the incorrect response button in incongruent than congruent trials. Moreover, these MT-metrics were positively associated with RT-race-IAT scores, strengthening the MT approach's validity in characterising the implicit bias. Furthermore, the distributional analyses showed that mouse trajectories displayed a smooth profile both in congruent and incongruent trials to indicate that the unfolding of the decision process and the raised conflict is guided by dynamical cognitive processing. This latter continuous competition process was studied using a novel phase-based approach which allowed to temporally dissect an Early, a Mid and a Late phase, each of which may differently reflect the decision conflict between automatic and controlled responses in the evolution of the mouse movement towards the target response. Our results show that the MT approach provides an accurate and finer-grained characterisation of the implicit racial attitude than classical RT-IAT. Finally, our novel phase-based approach can be an effective tool to shed light on the implicit conflict processing emerging in a categorisation task with a promising transferable value in different cognitive and neuropsychological fields.

Short-Term, Voluntary Exercise Affects Morpho-Functional Maturation of Adult-Generated Neurons in Rat Hippocampus.

Physical exercise is a well-proven neurogenic stimulus, promoting neuronal progenitor proliferation and affecting newborn cell survival. Besides, it has beneficial effects on brain health and cognition. Previously, we found that three days of physical activity in a very precocious period of adult-generated granule cell life is able to antedate the appearance of the first GABAergic synaptic contacts and increase T-type Ca2+ channel expression. Considering the role of GABA and Ca2+ in fostering neuronal maturation, in this study, we used short-term, voluntary exercise on a running wheel to investigate if it is able to induce long-term morphological and synaptic changes in newborn neurons. Using adult male rats, we found that: (i) three days of voluntary physical exercise can definitively influence the morpho-functional maturation process of newborn granule neurons when applied very early during their development; (ii) a significant percentage of new neurons show more mature morphological characteristics far from the end of exercise protocol; (iii) the long-term morphological effects result in enhanced synaptic plasticity. Present findings demonstrate that the morpho-functional changes induced by exercise on very immature adult-generated neurons are permanent, affecting the neuron maturation and integration in hippocampal circuitry. Our data contribute to underpinning the beneficial potential of physical activity on brain health, also performed for short times.

Calsequestrin Deletion Facilitates Hippocampal Synaptic Plasticity and Spatial Learning in Post-Natal Development.

: Experimental evidence highlights the involvement of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-mediated Ca2+ signals in modulating synaptic plasticity and spatial memory formation in the hippocampus. Ca2+ release from the ER mainly occurs through two classes of Ca2+ channels, inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptors (InsP3Rs) and ryanodine receptors (RyRs). Calsequestrin (CASQ) and calreticulin (CR) are the most abundant Ca2+-binding proteins allowing ER Ca2+ storage. The hippocampus is one of the brain regions expressing CASQ, but its role in neuronal activity, plasticity, and the learning processes is poorly investigated. Here, we used knockout mice lacking both CASQ type-1 and type-2 isoforms (double (d)CASQ-null mice) to: a) evaluate in adulthood the neuronal electrophysiological properties and synaptic plasticity in the hippocampal Cornu Ammonis 1 (CA1) field and b) study the performance of knockout mice in spatial learning tasks. The ablation of CASQ increased the CA1 neuron excitability and improved the long-term potentiation (LTP) maintenance. Consistently, (d)CASQ-null mice performed significantly better than controls in the Morris Water Maze task, needing a shorter time to develop a spatial preference for the goal. The Ca2+ handling analysis in CA1 pyramidal cells showed a decrement of Ca2+ transient amplitude in (d)CASQ-null mouse neurons, which is consistent with a decrease in afterhyperpolarization improving LTP. Altogether, our findings suggest that CASQ deletion affects activity-dependent ER Ca2+ release, thus facilitating synaptic plasticity and spatial learning in post-natal development.

Evidence for the existence of A2AR-TrkB heteroreceptor complexes in the dorsal hippocampus of the rat brain: Potential implications of A2AR and TrkB interplay upon ageing.

Adenosine A2A receptors (A2AR) are crucial in facilitating the BDNF action on synaptic transmission in the rat hippocampus primarily upon ageing. Furthermore, it has been suggested that A2AR-Tropomyosin related kinase B receptor (TrkB) crosstalk has a pivotal role in adenosine A2AR-mediated modulation of the BDNF action on hippocampal plasticity. Considering the impact of the above receptors interplay on what concerns BDNF-induced enhancement of synaptic transmission, gaining a better insight into the mechanisms behind this powerful crosstalk becomes of primary interest. Using in situ proximity ligation assay (PLA), the existence of a direct physical interaction between adenosine A2AR and TrkB is demonstrated. The A2AR-TrkB heteroreceptor complexes show a heterogeneous distribution within the rat dorsal hippocampus. High densities of the heteroreceptor complexes were observed in the pyramidal cell layers of CA1-CA3 regions and in the polymorphic layer of the dentate gyrus (DG). The stratum radiatum of the CA1-3 regions showed positive PLA signal in contrast to the oriens region. The molecular and granular layers of the DG also lacked significant densities of PLA positive heteroreceptor complexes, but subgranular zone showed some PLA positive cells. Their allosteric receptor-receptor interactions may significantly modulate BDNF signaling impacting on hippocampal plasticity which is impaired upon ageing.

GABAergic Input Affects Intracellular Calcium Levels in Developing Granule Cells of Adult Rat Hippocampus.

In the dentate gyrus (DG) of the mammalian hippocampus, granule neurons are generated from neural stem cells (NSCs) throughout the life span and are integrated into the hippocampal network. Adult DG neurogenesis is regulated by multiple intrinsic and extrinsic factors that control NSC proliferation, maintenance, and differentiation into mature neurons. γ-Aminobutyric acid (GABA), released by local interneurons, regulates the development of neurons born in adulthood by activating extrasynaptic and synaptic GABAA receptors. In the present work, patch-clamp and calcium imaging techniques were used to record very immature granule cells of adult rat dentate gyrus for investigating the actual role of GABAA receptor activation in intracellular calcium level regulation at an early stage of maturation. Our findings highlight a novel molecular and electrophysiological mechanism, involving calcium-activated potassium channels (BK) and T-type voltage-dependent calcium channels, through which GABA fine-tunes intracellular calcium homeostasis in rat adult-born granule neurons early during their maturation. This mechanism might be instrumental in promoting newborn cell survival.

Maternal Creatine Supplementation Positively Affects Male Rat Hippocampal Synaptic Plasticity in Adult Offspring.

Creatine plays a crucial role in developing the brain, so much that its genetic deficiency results in mental dysfunction and cognitive impairments. Moreover, creatine supplementation is currently under investigation as a preventive measure to protect the fetus against oxidative stress during difficult pregnancies. Although creatine use is considered safe, posing minimal risk to clinical health, we found an alteration in morpho-functional maturation of neurons when male rats were exposed to creatine loads during brain development. In particular, increased excitability and enhanced long-term potentiation (LTP) were observed in the hippocampal pyramidal neurons of weaning pups. Since these effects were observed a long time after creatine treatment had been terminated, long-lasting modifications persisting into adulthood were hypothesized. Such modifications were investigated in the present study using morphological, electrophysiological, and calcium imaging techniques applied to hippocampal Cornu Ammonis 1 (CA1) neurons of adult rats born from dams supplemented with creatine. When compared to age-matched controls, the treated adult offspring were found to retain enhanced neuron excitability and an improved LTP, the best-documented neuronal substrate for memory formation. While translating data from rats to humans does have limitations, our findings suggest that prenatal creatine supplementation could have positive effects on adult cognitive abilities.

Excitotoxicity, neuroinflammation and oxidant stress as molecular bases of epileptogenesis and epilepsy-derived neurodegeneration: The role of vitamin E.

Glutamate-mediated excitotoxicity, neuroinflammation, and oxidative stress are common underlying events in neurodegeneration. This pathogenic "triad" characterizes the neurobiology of epilepsy, leading to seizure-induced cell death, increased susceptibility to neuronal synchronization and network alterations. Along with other maladaptive changes, these events pave the way to spontaneous recurrent seizures and progressive degeneration of the interested brain areas. In vivo models of epilepsy are available to explore such epileptogenic mechanisms, also assessing the efficacy of chemoprevention and therapy strategies at the pre-clinical level. The kainic acid model of pharmacological excitotoxicity and epileptogenesis is one of the most investigated mimicking the chronicization profile of temporal lobe epilepsy in humans. Its pathogenic cues include inflammatory and neuronal death pathway activation, mitochondrial disturbances and lipid peroxidation of several regions of the brain, the most vulnerable being the hippocampus. The importance of neuroinflammation and lipid peroxidation as underlying molecular events of brain damage was demonstrated in this model by the possibility to counteract the related maladaptive morphological and functional changes of this organ with vitamin E, the main fat-soluble cellular antioxidant and "conditional" co-factor of enzymatic pathways involved in polyunsaturated lipid metabolism and inflammatory signaling. The present review paper provides an overview of the literature supporting the potential for a timely intervention with vitamin E therapy in clinical management of seizures and epileptogenic processes associated with excitotoxicity, neuroinflammation and lipid peroxidation, i.e. the pathogenic "triad".

Melatonin protects hippocampal HT22 cells from the effects of serum deprivation specifically targeting mitochondria.

Neurons contain a high number of mitochondria, these neuronal cells produce elevated levels of oxidative stress and live for a long time without proliferation; therefore, mitochondrial homeostasis is crucial to their health. Investigations have recently focused on mitochondrial dynamics revealing the ability of these organelles to change their distribution and morphology. It is known that mitochondrial fission is necessary for the transmission of mitochondria to daughter cells during mitosis and mitochondrial fragmentation has been used as an indicator of cell death and mitochondrial dysfunction. Oxidative stress is a trigger able to induce changes in the mitochondrial network. The aim of the present study was to determine the effects of melatonin on the mitochondrial network in HT22 serum-deprived cells. Our results showed that serum deprivation increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) content, promoted the activation of plasma membrane voltage-dependent anion channels (VDACs) and affected the expression of pDRP1 and DRP1 fission proteins. Moreover, parallel increases in apoptotic and autophagic features were found. Damaged and dysfunctional mitochondria are deleterious to the cell; hence, the degradation of such mitochondria through mitophagy is crucial to cell survival. Our results suggest that melatonin supplementation reduces cell death and restores mitochondrial function through the regulation of autophagy.

Neurobiological Correlates of Alpha-Tocopherol Antiepileptogenic Effects and MicroRNA Expression Modulation in a Rat Model of Kainate-Induced Seizures.

Seizure-triggered maladaptive neural plasticity and neuroinflammation occur during the latent period as a key underlying event in epilepsy chronicization. Previously, we showed that α-tocopherol (α-T) reduces hippocampal neuroglial activation and neurodegeneration in the rat model of kainic acid (KA)-induced status epilepticus (SE). These findings allowed us to postulate an antiepileptogenic potential for α-T in hippocampal excitotoxicity, in line with clinical evidence showing that α-T improves seizure control in drug-resistant patients. To explore neurobiological correlates of the α-T antiepileptogenic role, rats were injected with such vitamin during the latent period starting right after KA-induced SE, and the effects on circuitry excitability, neuroinflammation, neuronal death, and microRNA (miRNA) expression were investigated in the hippocampus. Results show that in α-T-treated epileptic rats, (1) the number of population spikes elicited by pyramidal neurons, as well as the latency to the onset of epileptiform-like network activity recover to control levels; (2) neuronal death is almost prevented; (3) down-regulation of claudin, a blood-brain barrier protein, is fully reversed; (4) neuroinflammation processes are quenched (as indicated by the decrease of TNF-α, IL-1ß, GFAP, IBA-1, and increase of IL-6); (5) miR-146a, miR-124, and miR-126 expression is coherently modulated in hippocampus and serum by α-T. These findings support the potential of a timely intervention with α-T in clinical management of SE to reduce epileptogenesis, thus preventing chronic epilepsy development. In addition, we suggest that the analysis of miRNA levels in serum could provide clinicians with a tool to evaluate disease evolution and the efficacy of α-T therapy in SE.

Disturbances in the FGFR1-5-HT1A Heteroreceptor Complexes in the Raphe-Hippocampal 5-HT System Develop in a Genetic Rat Model of Depression.

The FGFR1-5-HT1A heteroreceptor complexes are involved in neuroplasticity in the rat hippocampus and in the mesencephalic raphe 5-HT nerve cells. There exists a 5-HT1A protomer enhancement of FGFR1 protomer signaling. Acute and 10 day treatment with intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) FGF-2 and the 5-HT1A agonist 8-OH-DPAT produced enhanced antidepressant effects in the forced swim test (FST). We studied in the current work the disturbances in the FGFR1-5-HT1A heterocomplexes in a genetic rat model of depression, the Flinders sensitive line (FSL) rats of Sprague-Dawley (SD) origin, by means of neurochemical, neurophysiological and behavioral techniques. In control SD rats, the FGFR1 agonist SUN11602 and FGF2 produced a significant reduction of G protein-coupled inwardly rectifying K+ channel (GIRK) currents induced by 8-OH-DPAT in the CA1 area of the hippocampus. In FSL rats, only i.c.v. 8-OH-DPAT alone treatment produced a significant reduction in the immobility time. The combined i.c.v. treatment (FGF2 + 8-OH-DPAT) in FSL rats did not cause a significant decrease in immobility time in the FST. However, in the SD rats this combined treatment produced a significant reduction. Furthermore, in the FSL rat a significant increase in the density of FGFR1-5-HT1A proximity ligation assay (PLA) positive clusters was only found after i.c.v. 8-OH-DPAT treatment alone in the CA2 and CA3 areas. In the SD rat a significant increase in the density of specific PLA clusters was only observed in the CA2 area of the i.c.v. combined treatment (FGF2 + 8-OH-DPAT) group. No treatment led to significant changes in the PLA clusters of the dorsal raphe in the FSL rat. However, significant changes in the density of specific PLA clusters were only found in the dorsal raphe of SD rats after combined treatment and treatment with 8-OH-DPAT alone. The results indicate that in FSL rats compared with SD rats alterations may develop in the ability of 8-OH-DPAT and combined FGFR1 and 5-HT1A agonist treatment to increase the density of FGFR1-5-HT1A heteroreceptor complexes of the dorsal raphe. It is proposed that such deficits in FSL rats may possibly reflect a failure of the combined agonist treatment to uncouple the 5-HT1A autoreceptors from the GIRK channels. This may contribute to the failure of producing antidepressant-like effects in the FSL rat by combined agonist treatment as seen in the SD rat. The antidepressant-like effects seen with the 5-HT1A agonist alone treatment in FSL but not in SD rats may instead involve significant increases in the FGFR1-5-HT1A complexes of the CA2 and CA3 areas of the hippocampus.

Existence of Brain 5-HT1A-5-HT2A Isoreceptor Complexes with Antagonistic Allosteric Receptor-Receptor Interactions Regulating 5-HT1A Receptor Recognition.

Studies on serotonin-selective reuptake inhibitors have established that disturbances in the ascending 5-HT neuron systems and their 5-HT receptor subtypes and collateral networks to the forebrain contribute to the etiology of major depression and are targets for treatment. The therapeutic action of serotonin-selective reuptake inhibitors is of proven effectiveness, but the mechanisms underlying their effect are still unclear. There are many 5-HT subtypes involved; some need to be blocked (e.g., 5-HT2A, 5-HT3, and 5-HT7), whereas others need to be activated (e.g., postjunctional 5-HT1A and 5-HT4). These state-of-the-art developments are in line with the hypothesis that the development of major depression can involve an imbalance of the activity between different types of 5-HT isoreceptors. In the current study, using in situ proximity ligation assay (PLA), we report evidence for the existence of brain 5-HT1A-5-HT2A isoreceptor complexes validated in cellular models with bioluminescence resonance energy transfer (BRET2) assay. A high density of PLA-positive clusters visualizing 5-HT1A-5-HT2A isoreceptor complexes was demonstrated in the pyramidal cell layer of the CA1-CA3 regions of the dorsal hippocampus. A marked reduction in the density of PLA-positive clusters was observed in the CA1 and CA2 regions 24 h after a forced swim test session, indicating the dynamics of this 5-HT isoreceptor complex. Using a bioinformatic approach, previous work indicates that receptors forming heterodimers demonstrate triplet amino acid homologies. The receptor interface of the 5-HT1A-5-HT2A isoreceptor dimer was shown to contain the LLG and QNA protriplets in the transmembrane and intracellular domain, respectively. The 5-HT2A agonist TCB2 markedly reduced the affinity of the 5-HT1A agonist ipsapirone for the 5-HT1A agonist binding sites in the frontal lobe using the 5-HT1A radioligand binding assay. This action was blocked by the 5-HT2A antagonist ketanserin. It is proposed that the demonstrated 5-HT1A-5-HT2A isoreceptor complexes may play a role in depression through integration of 5-HT recognition, signaling and trafficking in the plasma membrane in two major 5-HT receptor subtypes known to be involved in depression. Antagonistic allosteric receptor-receptor interactions appear to be involved in this integrative process.

Understanding the Role of GPCR Heteroreceptor Complexes in Modulating the Brain Networks in Health and Disease.

The introduction of allosteric receptor-receptor interactions in G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) heteroreceptor complexes of the central nervous system (CNS) gave a new dimension to brain integration and neuropsychopharmacology. The molecular basis of learning and memory was proposed to be based on the reorganization of the homo- and heteroreceptor complexes in the postjunctional membrane of synapses. Long-term memory may be created by the transformation of parts of the heteroreceptor complexes into unique transcription factors which can lead to the formation of specific adapter proteins. The observation of the GPCR heterodimer network (GPCR-HetNet) indicated that the allosteric receptor-receptor interactions dramatically increase GPCR diversity and biased recognition and signaling leading to enhanced specificity in signaling. Dysfunction of the GPCR heteroreceptor complexes can lead to brain disease. The findings of serotonin (5-HT) hetero and isoreceptor complexes in the brain over the last decade give new targets for drug development in major depression. Neuromodulation of neuronal networks in depression via 5-HT, galanin peptides and zinc involve a number of GPCR heteroreceptor complexes in the raphe-hippocampal system: GalR1-5-HT1A, GalR1-5-HT1A-GPR39, GalR1-GalR2, and putative GalR1-GalR2-5-HT1A heteroreceptor complexes. The 5-HT1A receptor protomer remains a receptor enhancing antidepressant actions through its participation in hetero- and homoreceptor complexes listed above in balance with each other. In depression, neuromodulation of neuronal networks in the raphe-hippocampal system and the cortical regions via 5-HT and fibroblast growth factor 2 involves either FGFR1-5-HT1A heteroreceptor complexes or the 5-HT isoreceptor complexes such as 5-HT1A-5-HT7 and 5-HT1A-5-HT2A. Neuromodulation of neuronal networks in cocaine use disorder via dopamine (DA) and adenosine signals involve A2AR-D2R and A2AR-D2R-Sigma1R heteroreceptor complexes in the dorsal and ventral striatum. The excitatory modulation by A2AR agonists of the ventral striato-pallidal GABA anti-reward system via targeting the A2AR-D2R and A2AR-D2R-Sigma1R heteroreceptor complex holds high promise as a new way to treat cocaine use disorders. Neuromodulation of neuronal networks in schizophrenia via DA, adenosine, glutamate, 5-HT and neurotensin peptides and oxytocin, involving A2AR-D2R, D2R-NMDAR, A2AR-D2R-mGluR5, D2R-5-HT2A and D2R-oxytocinR heteroreceptor complexes opens up a new world of D2R protomer targets in the listed heterocomplexes for treatment of positive, negative and cognitive symptoms of schizophrenia.

α-Tocopherol and Hippocampal Neural Plasticity in Physiological and Pathological Conditions.

Neuroplasticity is an "umbrella term" referring to the complex, multifaceted physiological processes that mediate the ongoing structural and functional modifications occurring, at various time- and size-scales, in the ever-changing immature and adult brain, and that represent the basis for fundamental neurocognitive behavioral functions; in addition, maladaptive neuroplasticity plays a role in the pathophysiology of neuropsychiatric dysfunctions. Experiential cues and several endogenous and exogenous factors can regulate neuroplasticity; among these, vitamin E, and in particular α-tocopherol (α-T), the isoform with highest bioactivity, exerts potent effects on many plasticity-related events in both the physiological and pathological brain. In this review, the role of vitamin E/α-T in regulating diverse aspects of neuroplasticity is analyzed and discussed, focusing on the hippocampus, a brain structure that remains highly plastic throughout the lifespan and is involved in cognitive functions. Vitamin E-mediated influences on hippocampal synaptic plasticity and related cognitive behavior, on post-natal development and adult hippocampal neurogenesis, as well as on cellular and molecular disruptions in kainate-induced temporal seizures are described. Besides underscoring the relevance of its antioxidant properties, non-antioxidant functions of vitamin E/α-T, mainly involving regulation of cell signaling molecules and their target proteins, have been highlighted to help interpret the possible mechanisms underlying the effects on neuroplasticity.

Effect of Different Exercise Intensities on the Myotendinous Junction Plasticity.

Myotendinous junctions (MTJs) are anatomical regions specialized in transmission of contractile strength from muscle to tendon and, for this reason, a common site where acute injuries occur during sport activities. In this work we investigated the influence of exercise intensity on MTJ plasticity, as well as on the expression of insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) and transforming growth factor beta (TGF-ß) and their receptors in muscle and tendon. Three groups of rats were analyzed: control (CTRL), slow-runner (RUN-S) and fast-runner (RUN-F) trained using a treadmill. Ultrastructural and morphometric analyses of distal MTJs from extensor digitorum longus muscles have been performed. Contractile strength and hypertrophy were investigated by using in vivo tension recordings and muscle cross-sectional area (CSA) analysis, respectively. mRNA levels of PGC-1α, vinculin, IGF-1Ea and TGF-ß have been quantified in muscle belly, while IGF-1Ea, TGF-ß and their receptors in tendon. Morphometry revealed an increased MTJ complexity and interaction surface between tissues in trained rats according to training intensity. CSA analysis excluded hypertrophy among groups, while muscle strength was found significantly enhanced in exercised rats in comparison to controls. In muscle tissue, we highlighted an increased mRNA expression of PGC-1α and vinculin in both trained conditions and of TGF-ß in RUN-F. In tendon, we mainly noted an enhancement of TGF-ß mRNA expression only in RUN-F group and a raise of Betaglycan tendon receptor mRNA levels proportional to exercise intensity. In conclusion, MTJ plasticity appears to be related to exercise intensity and molecular analysis suggests a major role played by TGF-ß.

New insights into the trophic and cytoprotective effects of creatine in in vitro and in vivo models of cell maturation.

A growing body of scientific reports indicates that the role of creatine (Cr) in cellular biochemistry and physiology goes beyond its contribution to cell energy. Indeed Cr has been shown to exert multiple effects promoting a wide range of physiological responses in vitro as well as in vivo. Included in these, Cr promotes in vitro neuron and muscle cell differentiation, viability and survival under normal or adverse conditions; anabolic, protective and pro-differentiative effects have also been observed in vivo. For example Cr has been shown to accelerate in vitro differentiation of cultured C2C12 myoblasts into myotubes, where it also induces a slight but significant hypertrophic effect as compared to unsupplemented cultures; Cr also prevents the anti-differentiation effects caused by oxidative stress in the same cells. In trained adults, Cr increases the mRNA expression of relevant myogemic factors, protein synthesis, muscle strength and size, in cooperation with physical exercise. As to neurons and central nervous system, Cr favors the electrophysiological maturation of chick neuroblasts in vitro and protects them from oxidative stress-caused killing; similarly, Cr promotes the survival and differentiation of GABA-ergic neurons in fetal spinal cord cultures in vitro; in vivo, maternal Cr supplementation promotes the morpho-functional development of hippocampal neurons in rat offsprings. This article, which presents also some new experimental data, focuses on the trophic, pro-survival and pro-differentiation effects of Cr and examines the ensuing preventive and therapeutic potential in pathological muscle and brain conditions.

High Cardiorespiratory Fitness Is Negatively Associated with Daily Cortisol Output in Healthy Aging Men.

Physical fitness has salutary psychological and physical effects in older adults by promoting neuroplasticity and adaptation to stress. In aging, however, the effects of fitness on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis are mixed. We investigated the association between cardiorespiratory fitness and HPA activity in healthy elderly men (n = 22, mean age 68 y; smokers, obese subjects, those taking drugs or reporting recent stressful events were excluded), by measuring in saliva: i) daily pattern of cortisol secretion (6 samples: 30' post-awakening, and at 12.00, 15.00, 18.00, 21.00, 24.00 h); and ii) the cortisol response to a mental challenge. Cardiorespiratory fitness (VO2max) was estimated using the Rockport Walking Test and the participants were assigned to high-fit (HF, ≥60°, n = 10) and low-fit (LF, ≤35°, n = 12) groups according to age-specific percentiles of VO2max distribution in the general population. At all daytimes, basal cortisol levels were lower in the HF than the LF group, most notably in the evening and midnight samples, with a significant main effect of physical fitness for cortisol levels overall; the area-under-the-curve for total daily cortisol output was significantly smaller in the HF group. Among the subjects who responded to mental stress (baseline-to-peak increment >1.5 nmol/L; n = 13, 5 LF, 8 HF), the amplitude of cortisol response and the steepness of recovery decline displayed an increasing trend in the HF subjects, although between-group differences failed to reach the threshold for significance. In conclusion, cardiorespiratory fitness in healthy aging men is negatively correlated with daily cortisol output and contributes to buffering the HPA dysregulation that occurs with advancing age, thus possibly playing a beneficial role in contrasting age-related cognitive and physical decline.

Post-seizure α-tocopherol treatment decreases neuroinflammation and neuronal degeneration induced by status epilepticus in rat hippocampus.

Vitamin E (as α-tocopherol, α-T) was shown to have beneficial effects in epilepsy, mainly ascribed to its antioxidant properties. Besides radical-induced neurotoxicity, neuroinflammation is also involved in the pathophysiology of epilepsy, since neuroglial activation and cytokine production exacerbate seizure-induced neurotoxicity and contribute to epileptogenesis. We previously showed that α-T oral supplementation before inducing status epilepticus, markedly reduces astrocytic and microglial activation, neuronal cell death and oxidative stress in the hippocampus, as observed 4 days after seizure. In order to evaluate the possibility that such a neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory effect may also provide a strategy for an acute intervention in epilepsy, in this study, seizures were induced by single intaperitoneal injection of kainic acid and, starting from 3 h after status epilepticus, rats were treated with an intraperitoneal bolus of α-T (250 mg/kg b.w.; once a day) for 4 days, that was the time after which morphological and biochemical analyses were performed on hippocampus. Post-seizure α-T administration significantly reduced astrocytosis and microglia activation, and decreased neuron degeneration and spine loss; these effects were associated with the presence of a lowered lipid peroxidation in hippocampus. These results confirm and further emphasize the anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective role of α-T in kainic acid-induced epilepsy. Moreover, the findings show that post-seizure treatment with α-T provides an effective secondary prevention against post-seizure inflammation-induced brain damages and possibly against their epileptogenic effects.

Motor activity affects adult skeletal muscle re-innervation acting via tyrosine kinase receptors.

Recently, muscle expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) mRNA and protein under activity control has been reported. BDNF is a neurotrophin known to be involved in axon sprouting in the CNS. Hence, we set out to study the effect of chronic treadmill mid-intensity running on adult rat muscle re-innervation, and to explore the involvement of BDNF and tropomyosin-related kinase (Trk) receptors. After nerve crush, muscle re-innervation was evaluated using intracellular recordings, tension recordings, immunostaining and Western blot analyses. An enhanced muscle multiple innervation was found in running rats that was fully reversed to control values blocking Trk receptors or interrupting the running activity. An increase in muscle multiple innervation was also found in sedentary rats treated with a selective TrkB receptor agonist. The expression of TrkB receptors by intramuscular axons was demonstrated, and increased muscle expression of BDNF was found in running animals. The increase in muscle multiple innervation was consistent with the faster muscle re-innervation that we found in running animals. We conclude that, when regenerating axons contact muscle cells, muscle activity progressively increases modulating BDNF and possibly other growth factors, which in turn, acting via Trk receptors, induce axon sprouting to re-innervate skeletal muscle.