Regulation of the gap junction interplay during postnatal development in the rat epididymis.

During postnatal development of the rat epididymis, a change in the expression of gap junction proteins, or connexins (Cxs), occurs, in which Gjb2 (Cx26) and Gja1 (Cx43) levels in the proximal epididymis are decreased, while Gjb1 (Cx32), Gjb4 (Cx30.3) and Gjb5 (Cx31.1) levels increase. The mechanism(s) responsible for the switch in Cx expression is unknown. The aim of this study is to identify the mechanisms responsible for the decrease in GJB2 protein levels and the increase in other Cxs during postnatal development. Results indicate that decreased Gjb2 expression for 48 h does not alter the expression of other Cxs in RCE-1 principal cells, suggesting a lack of compensatory expression. Sequence analysis of both Gjb2 and Gjb1 promoters identified common multiple response elements to steroid hormones. Using RCE-1 cells, we observed that dexamethasone increased Gjb2 mRNA levels by twofold after 48 h, while estradiol had no effect. Orchidectomy in rats resulted in a significant increase in GJB2 and decreased GJB1 in the caput and corpus epididymidis. Changes in Cxs protein levels were prevented by testosterone in orchidectomized rats. Similar results were observed in the prostate, another androgen-receptive organ. LNCaP cells, which are androgen-responsive, showed that exogenous dihydrotestosterone (DHT) decreased Gjb2 mRNA levels by approximately 50% concomitant with a 1.5-fold increase in Gjb1 levels. Using a GJB1 promoter construct we showed that DHT could induce transactivation of the luciferase transgene, while transactivation of two GJB2 promoters were unaltered. Results indicate that androgens and glucocorticoids regulate the expression of epididymal Cxs.

Three-Dimensional Cell Culture of Epididymal Basal Cells and Organoids: A Novel Tool for Toxicology.

Spermatozoa are formed in the testis but must transit through the epididymis to acquire motility and the ability to fertilize. The epididymis is a single convoluted tubule comprising several anatomically and physiologically distinct regions. The pseudostratified epithelium consists of multiple cell types, including principal cells, clear cells, narrow cells, and apical cells, that line the lumen of the epididymis. Basal cells are present at the base of the epithelium, and halo cells, which includes macrophages/monocytes, mononuclear phagocytes, and T lymphocytes, are also present in the epithelium. Several aspects of this complex spermatozoan maturation process are well established, but a great deal remains poorly understood. Given that dysfunction of the epididymis has been associated with male infertility, in vitro tools to study epididymal function and epididymal sperm maturation are required. Our lab and others have previously developed human, rat, and mouse epithelial principal cell lines, which have been used to address certain questions, such as about the regulation of junctional proteins in the epididymis, as well as the toxicity of nonylphenols. Given that the epididymal epithelium comprises multiple cell types, however, a 3D in vitro model provides a more comprehensive and realistic tool that can be used to study and elucidate the multiple aspects of epididymal function. The purpose of this article is to provide detailed information regarding the preparation, maintenance, passaging, and immunofluorescent staining of rat epididymal organoids derived from adult basal cells, which we have demonstrated to be a type of adult stem cell in the rat epididymis. © 2024 The Authors. Current Protocols published by Wiley Periodicals LLC. Basic Protocol 1: Isolation of epididymal cells Basic Protocol 2: Magnetic activated cell sorting and isolation of basal cells Basic Protocol 3: Preparation and culture of epididymal basal cell organoids Basic Protocol 4: Passage of epididymal basal cell organoids Basic Protocol 5: Freezing and thawing of epididymal basal cell organoids Basic Protocol 6: Immunofluorescent staining of epididymal basal cell organoids.

Arl13b controls basal cell stemness properties and Hedgehog signaling in the mouse epididymis.

Epithelial cells orchestrate a series of intercellular signaling events in response to tissue damage. While the epididymis is composed of a pseudostratified epithelium that controls the acquisition of male fertility, the maintenance of its integrity in the context of tissue damage or inflammation remains largely unknown. Basal cells of the epididymis contain a primary cilium, an organelle that controls cellular differentiation in response to Hedgehog signaling cues. Hypothesizing its contribution to epithelial homeostasis, we knocked out the ciliary component ARL13B in keratin 5-positive basal cells. In this model, the reduced size of basal cell primary cilia was associated with impaired Hedgehog signaling and the loss of KRT5, KRT14, and P63 basal cell markers. When subjected to tissue injury, the epididymal epithelium from knock-out mice displayed imbalanced rates of cell proliferation/apoptosis and failed to properly regenerate in vivo. This response was associated with changes in the transcriptomic landscape related to immune response, cell differentiation, cell adhesion, and triggered severe hypoplasia of the epithelium. Together our results indicate that the ciliary GTPase, ARL13B, participates in the transduction of the Hedgehog signaling pathway to maintain basal cell stemness needed for tissue regeneration. These findings provide new insights into the role of basal cell primary cilia as safeguards of pseudostratified epithelia.

Emerging organoid models to study the epididymis in male reproductive toxicology.

The importance of the epididymis on sperm maturation and consequently male fertility has been well documented. The pseudostratified epithelium of the epididymis is comprised of multiple cell types, including principal cells, which are the most abundant, and basal cells. The role of basal cells has been unclear and has been a source of discussion in the literature. However, the recent demonstration that these cells are multipotent or adult stem cells has opened new areas of research in epididymal biology. One such avenue is to understand the regulation of these stem cells, and to exploit their properties to develop tools for toxicological studies to elucidate the effects of chemicals on cell differentiation and epididymal function in vitro. Studies in both rat and mouse have shown that purified single epididymal basal cells cultured under 3D conditions can proliferate and differentiate to form organoids, or mini organs. Furthermore, these epididymal basal stem cells can self-renew and differentiate into other epididymal cell types. It is known that during epididymal development, basal cells are derived from undifferentiated columnar cells, which have been reported to share common properties to stem cells. Like basal cells, these undifferentiated columnar cells can also form organoids under 3D culture conditions and can differentiate into basal, principal and clear cells. Organoids derived from either basal cells or columnar cells offer unique models for toxicology studies and represent an exciting and emerging approach to understand the epididymis.

Differential gene expression and hallmarks of stemness in epithelial cells of the developing rat epididymis.

Epididymal development can be subdivided into three phases: undifferentiated, a period of differentiation, and expansion. The objectives of this study were (1) to assess gene expression profiles in epididymides, (2) predict signaling pathways, and (3) develop a novel 3D cell culture method to assess the regulation of epididymal development in vitro. Microarray analyses indicate that the largest changes in differential gene expression occurred between the 7- to 18-day period, in which 1452 genes were differentially expressed, while 671 differentially expressed genes were noted between days 18 and 28, and there were 560 differentially expressed genes between days 28 and 60. Multiple signaling pathways were predicted at different phases of development. Pathway associations indicated that in epididymides of 7- to 18-day old rats, there was a significant association of regulated genes implicated in stem cells, estrogens, thyroid hormones, and kidney development, while androgen- and estrogen-related pathways were enriched at other phases of development. Organoids were derived from CD49f + columnar cells from 7-day old rats, while no organoids developed from CD49f- cells. Cells cultured in an epididymal basal cell organoid medium versus a commercial kidney differentiation medium supplemented with DHT revealed that irrespective of the culture medium, cells within differentiating organoids expressed p63, AQP9, and V-ATPase after 14 days of culture. The commercial kidney medium resulted in an increase in the number of organoids positive for p63, AQP9, and V-ATPase. Together, these data indicate that columnar cells represent an epididymal stem/progenitor cell population.

Self-renewal and differentiation of rat epididymal basal cells using a novel in vitro organoid model†.

The epididymis is composed of a pseudostratified epithelium that is comprised of various cell types. Studies have shown that rat basal cells share common properties with adult stem cells and begin to differentiate in vitro in response to fibroblast growth factor and 5α-dihydrotestosterone. The characterization of rat basal cells is therefore necessary to fully understand the role of these cells. The objectives of this study were to assess the ability of single basal cells to develop organoids and to assess their ability to self-renew and differentiate in vitro. We isolated basal cells from the rat epididymis and established three-dimensional cell cultures from the basal and nonbasal cell fractions. Organoids were formed by single adult epididymal basal cells. Organoids were dissociated into single basal cells, which were able to reform new organoids, and were maintained over 10 generations. Long-term culture of organoids revealed that these cells could be differentiated into cells expressing the principal cell markers aquaporin 9 and cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator. Electron microscopy demonstrated that organoids were composed of several polarized cell types displaying microvilli and the ability to form tight junctions. Additionally, organoids could be formed by basal cells from either the proximal or distal region of the epididymis and are able to secrete clusterin, a protein implicated in the maturation of spermatozoa. These data indicate that rat basal cells can be used to derive epididymal organoids and further support that notion that these may represent a stem cell population in the epididymis.

Hedgehog signaling pathway regulates gene expression profile of epididymal principal cells through the primary cilium.

Primary cilia (PC) are organelles that sense and respond to dynamic changes of the extracellular milieu through the regulation of target genes. By using the epididymis as a model system, we determined the contribution of primary cilia in the regulation of epithelial cell functions through the transduction of the Hedgehog (Hh) signaling pathway. Both Sonic (SHH) and Indian Hedgehog (IHH) ligands were detected in epididymal epithelial cells by confocal microscopy and found secreted in the extracellular space. Gene expression profiling preformed on ciliated epithelial cells indicated that 153 and 1052 genes were differentially expressed following treatment with the Hh agonist SAG or the Hh antagonist cyclopamine (Cyclo), respectively. Strikingly, gene ontology analysis indicated that genes associated with immune response were the most affected following Hh modulation. The contribution of epididymal PC to canonical Hh pathway transduction was validated by ciliobrevin D treatment, which induced a significant decrease in PC length and a reduction in the expression Hh signaling targets. Such findings bring us closer to a molecular understanding of the subtle immune balance observed in some epithelia, including the epididymis and the intestine, which are organs featuring both tolerance toward autoimmune spermatozoa (or commensal bacteria) and defense against pathogens.

Beta-defensin126 is correlated with sperm motility in fertile and infertile men†.

A crucial function of the epididymis is providing a surface glycocalyx that is important for sperm maturation and capacitation. Defensins are antimicrobial peptides expressed in the epididymis. In the macaque epididymis, defensin beta 126 (DEFB126) is important for sperm motility, however, it is not known whether this is the case in humans. The objectives were to determine: (1) if DEFB126 on human ejaculated sperm was correlated with sperm motility in fertile and infertile men, (2) that recombinant DEFB126 could induce immature sperm motility in vitro. Immunofluorescence staining indicated that the proportion of DEFB126-positive sperm was significantly higher in motile sperm. Furthermore, the proportion of DEFB126-labeled sperm was positively correlated with sperm motility and normal morphology. Additional studies indicated that the proportion of DEFB126-positive spermatozoa in fertile volunteers was significantly higher than in volunteers with varicocele, and in infertile volunteers with semen deficiencies. To determine the role of DEFB126 on sperm motility, the DEFB126 gene was cloned and used to generate recombinant DEFB126 in H9C2 cells (rat embryonic heart myoblast cells). Deletion mutations were created into two regions of the protein, which have been linked to male infertility. Immotile testicular spermatozoa were incubated with cells expressing the different forms of DEFB126. Full-length DEFB126 significantly increased motility of co-cultured spermatozoa. However, no increase in sperm motility was observed with the mutated forms of DEFB126. In conclusion, these results support the notion that DEFB126 is important in human sperm maturation and the potential use of DEFB126 for in vitro sperm maturation.

Effects of prostaglandin E2 on gap junction protein alpha 1 in the rat epididymis.

Gap junctions are responsible for intercellular communication. In the adult mammalian epididymis, gap junction protein alpha 1 (GJA1) is localized between basal and either principal or clear cells. GJA1 levels and localization change during the differentiation of basal cells. The present objective was to determine the role of basal cells and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) on GJA1 in the rat epididymis. Prior to basal cell differentiation, GJA1 is colocalized with TJP1 at the apical lateral margins between adjacent epithelial cells. When basal cells are present, GJA1 becomes associated between basal and principal cells, where it is primarily immunolocalized until adulthood. Basal cells express TP63, differentiate from epithelial cells, and produce prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthase 1 by 21 days of age. Prior to day 21, GJA1and TP63 are not strongly associated at the apical region. However, by day 28, TP63-positive basal cells migrate to the base of the epithelium, and also express GJA1. To assess effects of PGE2 on GJA1, rat caput epididymal (RCE) cells were exposed to PGE2 (50 µM) for 3 h. PGE2 increased levels of Gja1 mRNA in RCE cells, while levels of Gjb1, Gjb2, Gjb4, and GjB5 were unaltered. Furthermore, PGE2 increased protein levels of GJA1, phospho-GJA1, phospho-AKT, CTNNB1, and phospho-CTNNB1. Total AKT and the tight junction protein claudin1 were also not altered by PGE2. Data suggest that development of the epididymal epithelium and differentiation of epididymal basal cells regulate the targeting of GJA1, and that this appears to be mediated by PGE2.

Operational modifications for the development of nitrifying bacteria in a large-scale biological aerated filter and its impact on wastewater treatment.

To develop a better understanding for fixed biomass processes, the development of a nitrifying bacterial biofilm, as well as the performance of treatment during modifications to operational conditions of a full-scale submerged biological filter were examined. The development of the nitrifying biofilm was investigated at four depth levels (1, 2, 4 and 5 feet). The result of bacterial subpopulations analyzed by qPCR relative to the physico-chemical parameters of the wastewater during the various tests (sustained aeration, modified backwash parameters and inflow restriction) revealed an increase of the relative presence of nitrifying microorganisms throughout the biofilm (especially for nitrite oxidizing bacteria (NOB)), but this was not necessarily accompanied by a better nitrification rate. The highest observed nitrification rate was 49% of removal in the test cell during backwashing conditions, whereas the relative ammonia oxidizing bacteria (AOB) population was 0.032% and NOB was 0.008% of the total biomass collected. The highest percentage of nitrifying bacteria observed (0.034% AOB and 0.18% NOB) resulted in a nitrification rate of 21%. The treatment of organic matter determined by measuring the chemical and biochemical oxygen demand (COD, CBOD5) was improved.

Cellular junctions in the epididymis, a critical parameter for understanding male reproductive toxicology.

Epididymal sperm maturation is a critical aspect of male reproduction in which sperm acquire motility and the ability to fertilize an ovum. Sperm maturation is dependent on the creation of a specific environment that changes along the epididymis and which enables the maturation process. The blood-epididymis barrier creates a unique luminal micro-environment, different from blood, by limiting paracellular transport and forcing receptor-mediated transport of macromolecules across the epididymal epithelium. Direct cellular communication between cells allows coordinated function of the epithelium. A limited number of studies have directly examined the effects of toxicants on junctional proteins and barrier function in the epididymis. Effects on the integrity of the blood-epididymis barrier have resulted in decreased fertility and, in some cases, the development of sperm granulomas. Studies have shown that in addition to tight junctions, proteins implicated in the maintenance of adherens junctions and gap junctions alter epididymal functions. This review will provide an overview of the types and roles of cellular junctions in the epididymis, and how these are targeted by different toxicants.

Betamethasone causes intergenerational reproductive impairment in male rats.

Prenatal betamethasone (BM) exposure in rats negatively impacts sperm quality and male fertility. Studies have shown that BM can cause multi-generational effects on the pituitary-adrenal-axis of rats. The objective of this study was to assess the reproductive development and fertility of male rats (F2) whose fathers (F1) were exposed to BM (0.1mg/kg) on gestational days 12, 13, 18 and 19. In F2 rats, there was a significant reduction in body weights of the BM-treated group at PND 1 as well as delayed onset of puberty, and decreases in FSH levels, Leydig cell volume, sperm number and motility, seminal vesicle contractility and ejaculated volume. Furthermore, increased serum LH levels, sperm DNA damage and abnormal morphology were observed, resulting in reduced fertility. In conclusion, prenatal BM-treatment leads to intergenerational long-term reproductive impairment in male rats, raising concern regarding the widespread use of BM in preterm births.

Alterations in male rats following in utero exposure to betamethasone suggests changes in reproductive programming.

Antenatal betamethasone is used for accelerating fetal lung maturation for women at risk of preterm birth. Altered sperm parameters were reported in adult rats after intrauterine exposure to betamethasone. In this study, male rat offspring were assessed for reproductive development after dam exposure to betamethasone (0.1mg/kg) or vehicle on Days 12, 13, 18 and 19 of pregnancy. The treatment resulted in reduction in the offspring body weight, delay in preputial separation, decreased seminal vesicle weight, testosterone levels and fertility, and increased testicular weight. In the testis, morphologically abnormal seminiferous tubules were observed, characterized by an irregular cell distribution with Sertoli cell that were displaced towards the tubular lumen. These cells expressed both Connexin 43 (Cx43) and Proliferative Nuclear Cell Antigen (PCNA). In conclusion, intrauterine betamethasone treatment appears to promote reproductive programming and impairment of rat sexual development and fertility due to, at least in part, unusual testicular disorders.

Role of Specificity Protein-1 and Activating Protein-2 Transcription Factors in the Regulation of the Gap Junction Protein Beta-2 Gene in the Epididymis of the Rat.

In prepubertal rats, connexin 26 (GJB2) is expressed between adjacent columnar cells of the epididymis. At 28 days of age, when columnar cells differentiate into adult epithelial cell types, Gjb2 mRNA levels decrease to barely detectable levels. There is no information on the regulation of GJB2 in the epididymis. The present study characterized regulation of the Gjb2 gene promoter in the epididymis. A single transcription start site at position -3829 bp relative to the ATG was identified. Computational analysis revealed several TFAP2A, SP1, and KLF4 putative binding sites. A 1.5-kb fragment of the Gjb2 promoter was cloned into a vector containing a luciferase reporter gene. Transfection of the construct into immortalized rat caput epididymal (RCE-1) cells indicated that the promoter contained sufficient information to drive expression of the reporter gene. Deletion constructs showed that the basal activity of the promoter resides in the first -230 bp of the transcriptional start site. Two response elements necessary for GJB2 expression were identified: an overlapping TFAP2A/SP1 site (-136 to -126 bp) and an SP1 site (-50 bp). Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) and electrophoretic mobility shift assays confirmed that SP1 and TFAP2A were bound to the promoter. ChIP analysis of chromatin from young and pubertal rats indicated that TFAP2A and SP1 binding decreased with age. SP1 and TFAP2A knockdown indicated that SP1 is necessary for Gjb2 expression. DNA methylation did not appear to be involved in the regulation of Gjb2 expression. Results indicate that SP1 and TFAP2A regulate Gjb2 promoter activity during epididymal differentiation in rat.

Implications of caveolae in testicular and epididymal myoid cells to sperm motility.

Seminiferous tubules of the testis and epididymal tubules in adult rodents are enveloped by contractile myoid cells, which move sperm and fluids along the male reproductive tract. Myoid cells in the testis influence Sertoli cells by paracrine signaling, but their role in the epididymis is unknown. Electron microscopy revealed that elongated myoid cells formed several concentric layers arranged in a loose configuration. The edges of some myoid cells in a given layer closely approximated one another, and extended small foot-like processes to cells of overlying layers. Gap junction proteins, connexins 32 and 43, were detected within the myoid cell layers by immunohistochemistry. These myoid cells also had caveolae that contained caveolin-1 and cavin-1 (also known as PTRF). The number of caveolae per unit area of plasma membrane was significantly reduced in caveolin-1-deficient mice (Cav1(-/-) ). Morphometric analyses of Cav1-null testes revealed an enlargement in whole-tubule and epithelial profile areas, whereas these parameters were slightly reduced in the epididymis. Although sperm are non-motile as they pass through the proximal epididymis, statistical analyses of cauda epididymidis sperm concentrations revealed no significant differences between wild-type and Cav1(-/-) mice. Motility analyses, however, indicated that sperm velocity parameters were reduced while beat cross frequency was higher in gametes of Cav1(-/-) mice. Thus while caveolae and their associated proteins are not necessary for myoid cell contractility, they appear to be crucial for signaling with the epididymal epithelium to regulate the proper acquisition of sperm motility. Mol. Reprod. Dev. 83: 526-540, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Roles of connexins in testis development and spermatogenesis.

The development and differentiation of cells involved in spermatogenesis requires highly regulated and coordinated interactions between cells. Intercellular communication, particularly via connexin43 (Cx43) gap junctions, plays a critical role in the development of germ cells during fetal development and during spermatogenesis in the adult. Loss of Cx43 in the fetus results in a decreased number of germ cells, while the loss of Cx43 in the adult Sertoli cells results in complete inhibition of spermatogenesis. Connexins 26, 32, 33, 36, 45, 46 and 50 have also been localized to specific compartments of the testis in various mammals. Loss of Cx46 is associated with an increase in germ cell apoptosis and loss of the integrity of the blood-testis barrier, while loss of other connexins appears to have more subtle effects within the seminiferous tubule. Outside the seminiferous tubule, the interstitial Leydig cells express connexins 36 and 45 along with Cx43; deletion of the latter connexin did not reveal it to be crucial for steroidogenesis or for the development and differentiation of Leydig cells. In contrast, loss of Cx43 from Sertoli cells results in Leydig cell hyperplasia, suggesting important cross-talk between Sertoli and Leydig cells. In the epididymis connexins 26, 30.3, Cx31.1, 32, and 43 have been identified and differentiation of the epithelium is associated with dramatic changes in their expression. Decreased expression of Cx43 results in decreased sperm motility, a function acquired by spermatozoa during epididymal transit. Clearly, intercellular gap junctional communication within the testis and epididymis represents a critical aspect of male reproductive function and fertility. The implications of this mode of intercellular communication for male fertility remains a poorly understood but important facet of male reproduction.