HIV Diagnostics and Vaccines: It Takes Two to Tango.

Current serological tests for HIV screening and confirmation of infection present challenges to the adoption of HIV vaccines. The detection of vaccine-induced HIV-1 antibodies in the absence of HIV-1 infection, referred to as vaccine-induced seropositivity/seroreactivity, confounds the interpretation of test results, causing misclassification of HIV-1 status with potential affiliated stigmatization. For HIV vaccines to be widely adopted with high community confidence and uptake, tests that are agnostic to vaccination status (i.e., only positive for true HIV-1 infection) of tested individuals are needed. Successful development and deployment of such tests will require HIV vaccine developers to work in concert with diagnostic developers. Such tests will need to match today's high-performance standards (accuracy, cost-effectiveness, simplicity) for use in both vaccinated and unvaccinated populations, especially in low- and middle-income countries with high HIV burden. Herein, we discuss the challenges and strategies for developing modified serological HIV tests for concurrent deployment with HIV vaccines.

Analysis of the HIV Vaccine Trials Network 702 Phase 2b-3 HIV-1 Vaccine Trial in South Africa Assessing RV144 Antibody and T-Cell Correlates of HIV-1 Acquisition Risk.

BACKGROUND: The ALVAC/gp120 + MF59 vaccines in the HIV Vaccine Trials Network (HVTN) 702 efficacy trial did not prevent human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV-1) acquisition. Vaccine-matched immunological endpoints that were correlates of HIV-1 acquisition risk in RV144 were measured in HVTN 702 and evaluated as correlates of HIV-1 acquisition. METHODS: Among 1893 HVTN 702 female vaccinees, 60 HIV-1-seropositive cases and 60 matched seronegative noncases were sampled. HIV-specific CD4+ T-cell and binding antibody responses were measured 2 weeks after fourth and fifth immunizations. Cox proportional hazards models assessed prespecified responses as predictors of HIV-1 acquisition. RESULTS: The HVTN 702 Env-specific CD4+ T-cell response rate was significantly higher than in RV144 (63% vs 40%, P = .03) with significantly lower IgG binding antibody response rate and magnitude to 1086.C V1V2 (67% vs 100%, P < .001; Pmag < .001). Although no significant univariate associations were observed between any T-cell or binding antibody response and HIV-1 acquisition, significant interactions were observed (multiplicity-adjusted P ≤.03). Among vaccinees with high IgG A244 V1V2 binding antibody responses, vaccine-matched CD4+ T-cell endpoints associated with decreased HIV-1 acquisition (estimated hazard ratios = 0.40-0.49 per 1-SD increase in CD4+ T-cell endpoint). CONCLUSIONS: HVTN 702 and RV144 had distinct immunogenicity profiles. However, both identified significant correlations (univariate or interaction) for IgG V1V2 and polyfunctional CD4+ T cells with HIV-1 acquisition. Clinical Trials Registration . NCT02968849.

The quest for vaccine-induced immune correlates of protection against tuberculosis.

Immunization strategies against tuberculosis (TB) that confer better protection than neonatal vaccination with the 101-year-old Bacille Calmette-Guerin (BCG) are urgently needed to control the epidemic, but clinical development is hampered by a lack of established immune correlates of protection (CoPs). Two phase 2b clinical trials offer the first opportunity to discover human CoPs against TB. Adolescent BCG re-vaccination showed partial protection against Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) infection, as measured by sustained IFNγ release assay (IGRA) conversion. Adult M72/AS01E vaccination showed partial protection against pulmonary TB. We describe two collaborative research programs to discover CoPs against TB and ensure rigorous, streamlined use of available samples, involving international immunology experts in TB and state-of-the-art technologies, sponsors and funders. Hypotheses covering immune responses thought to be important in protection against TB have been defined and prioritized. A statistical framework to integrate the data analysis strategy was developed. Exploratory analyses will be performed to generate novel hypotheses.

Poststudy Point-of-Care Oral Fluid Testing in Human Immunodeficiency Virus-1 Vaccinees.

BACKGROUND: Experimental human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-1 vaccines frequently elicit antibodies against HIV-1 that may react with commonly used HIV diagnostic tests, a phenomenon known as vaccine-induced seropositivity/seroreactivity (VISP/VISR). We sought to determine, under clinic conditions, whether a patient-controlled HIV test, OraQuick ADVANCE Rapid HIV-1/2 Antibody Test, detected HIV-1 vaccine-induced antibodies. METHODS: Plasma assessment of HIV-1 cross-reactivity was examined in end-of-study samples from 57 healthy, HIV-uninfected participants who received a candidate vaccine that has entered Phase 2B and 3 testing. We also screened 120 healthy, HIV-uninfected, unblinded HIV-1 vaccine participants with VISP/VISR for an assessment using saliva. These participants came from 21 different parent vaccine protocols representing 17 different vaccine regimens, all of which contained an HIV-1 envelope immunogen. OraQuick ADVANCE was compared with results from concurrent blood samples using a series of commercial HIV screening immunoassays. RESULTS: Fifty-seven unique participant plasma samples were assayed in vitro, and only 1 (1.8%) was reactive by OraQuick ADVANCE. None of the 120 clinic participants (0%; 95% confidence interval, 0% to 3.7%) tested positive by OraQuick ADVANCE, and all were confirmed to be uninfected by HIV-1 viral ribonucleic acid testing. One hundred eighteen of the 120 (98.3%) participants had a reactive HIV test for VISP/VISR: 77 (64%) had at least 1 reactive fourth-generation HIV-1 diagnostic test (P < .0001 vs no reactive OraQuick ADVANCE results), and 41 (34%) only had a reactive test by the less specific third-generation Abbott Prism assay. CONCLUSIONS: These data suggest that this widely available patient-controlled test has limited reactivity to HIV-1 antibodies elicited by these candidate HIV-1 vaccines.

Sieve analysis of breakthrough HIV-1 sequences in HVTN 505 identifies vaccine pressure targeting the CD4 binding site of Env-gp120.

Although the HVTN 505 DNA/recombinant adenovirus type 5 vector HIV-1 vaccine trial showed no overall efficacy, analysis of breakthrough HIV-1 sequences in participants can help determine whether vaccine-induced immune responses impacted viruses that caused infection. We analyzed 480 HIV-1 genomes sampled from 27 vaccine and 20 placebo recipients and found that intra-host HIV-1 diversity was significantly lower in vaccine recipients (P ≤ 0.04, Q-values ≤ 0.09) in Gag, Pol, Vif and envelope glycoprotein gp120 (Env-gp120). Furthermore, Env-gp120 sequences from vaccine recipients were significantly more distant from the subtype B vaccine insert than sequences from placebo recipients (P = 0.01, Q-value = 0.12). These vaccine effects were associated with signatures mapping to CD4 binding site and CD4-induced monoclonal antibody footprints. These results suggest either (i) no vaccine efficacy to block acquisition of any viral genotype but vaccine-accelerated Env evolution post-acquisition; or (ii) vaccine efficacy against HIV-1s with Env sequences closest to the vaccine insert combined with increased acquisition due to other factors, potentially including the vaccine vector.

"In vitro systems to characterize the immune response to HIV-1 and HIV-1 vaccine candidates", NIAID Workshop Report, Bethesda, August 4, 2010.

Although clinical trials are the ultimate way to prove vaccine safety and efficacy, the complexity, cost and time required to develop a product to enter human trials demand a serious, long-term investment. Lack of knowledge on immune correlates of protection from HIV infections makes investments in HIV vaccine research significantly risky. Preclinical testing of HIV vaccines is routinely carried out in non-human primate models however these studies have a significant cost and their predictive value is still questionable. The potential value of screening new HIV-1 vaccine candidates on human cells and tissues via high throughput in vitro systems that allow rapid, cost-effective and accurate predictions of in vivo immune responses would be enormous. A one-day workshop was convened by Division of AIDS, National Institutes of Health on August 4, 2010 to address the benefits and challenges of assessing HIV-1 vaccine responses in alternative ways. Consideration was given to the use of various in vitro model systems, human mucosal tissue explants and humanized mouse models as ways to predict immunogenicity and efficacy of HIV-1 vaccines early in the development process, and support decisions on whether a product may be worthy of moving into non-human primates or human trials. This report summarizes the outcome of the workshop.

Magnitude and breadth of a nonprotective neutralizing antibody response in an efficacy trial of a candidate HIV-1 gp120 vaccine.

BACKGROUND: A candidate vaccine consisting of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) subunit gp120 protein was found previously to be nonprotective in an efficacy trial (Vax004) despite strong antibody responses against the vaccine antigens. Here we assessed the magnitude and breadth of neutralizing antibody responses in Vax004. METHODS: Neutralizing antibodies were measured against highly sensitive (tier 1) and moderately sensitive (tier 2) strains of HIV-1 subtype B in 2 independent assays. Vaccine recipients were stratified by sex, race, and high versus low behavioral risk of HIV-1 acquisition. RESULTS: Most vaccine recipients mounted potent neutralizing antibody responses against HIV-1(MN) and other tier 1 viruses. Occasional weak neutralizing activity was detected against tier 2 viruses. The response against tier 1 and tier 2 viruses was significantly stronger in women than in men. Race and behavioral risk of HIV-1 acquisition had no significant effect on the response. Prior vaccination had little effect on the neutralizing antibody response that arose after infection. CONCLUSIONS: Weak overall neutralizing antibody responses against tier 2 viruses is consistent with a lack of protection in this trial. The magnitude and breadth of neutralization reported here should be useful for identifying improved vaccines.

Standardization of cytokine flow cytometry assays.

BACKGROUND: Cytokine flow cytometry (CFC) or intracellular cytokine staining (ICS) can quantitate antigen-specific T cell responses in settings such as experimental vaccination. Standardization of ICS among laboratories performing vaccine studies would provide a common platform by which to compare the immunogenicity of different vaccine candidates across multiple international organizations conducting clinical trials. As such, a study was carried out among several laboratories involved in HIV clinical trials, to define the inter-lab precision of ICS using various sample types, and using a common protocol for each experiment (see additional files online). RESULTS: Three sample types (activated, fixed, and frozen whole blood; fresh whole blood; and cryopreserved PBMC) were shipped to various sites, where ICS assays using cytomegalovirus (CMV) pp65 peptide mix or control antigens were performed in parallel in 96-well plates. For one experiment, antigens and antibody cocktails were lyophilised into 96-well plates to simplify and standardize the assay setup. Results ((CD4+)cytokine+ cells and (CD8+)cytokine+ cells) were determined by each site. Raw data were also sent to a central site for batch analysis with a dynamic gating template. Mean inter-laboratory coefficient of variation (C.V.) ranged from 17-44% depending upon the sample type and analysis method. Cryopreserved peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) yielded lower inter-lab C.V.'s than whole blood. Centralized analysis (using a dynamic gating template) reduced the inter-lab C.V. by 5-20%, depending upon the experiment. The inter-lab C.V. was lowest (18-24%) for samples with a mean of > 0.5% IFNgamma + T cells, and highest (57-82%) for samples with a mean of < 0.1% IFNgamma + cells. CONCLUSION: ICS assays can be performed by multiple laboratories using a common protocol with good inter-laboratory precision, which improves as the frequency of responding cells increases. Cryopreserved PBMC may yield slightly more consistent results than shipped whole blood. Analysis, particularly gating, is a significant source of variability, and can be reduced by centralized analysis and/or use of a standardized dynamic gating template. Use of pre-aliquoted lyophilized reagents for stimulation and staining can provide further standardization to these assays.